View source for 3D Printing Replicator Transformation Here

{{About||methods of applying a 2D image on a 3D surface|pad printing|methods of copying 2D parallax stereograms that seem 3D to the eye|lenticular printing|and|holography}}
[[File:MakerBot Replicator 2.jpg|300px|thumb|right| A [[MakerBot]] Replicator 2]]
[[File:Hyperboloid Print.ogv|300px|thumb|[[Time-lapse photography|Timelapse]] video of a [[hyperboloid]] object (designed by [[George W. Hart]]) made of [[Polylactic acid|PLA]] using a RepRap "Prusa Mendel" 3 printer for molten polymer deposition]]
{{History of printing}}

'''3D printing''' (or '''additive manufacturing, AM''') is any of various processes used to make a [[three-dimensional space|three-dimensional]] object.<ref name="engineer"/>  In 3D printing, additive processes are used, in which successive layers of material are laid down under computer control.<ref name="Auto3D-1" />  These objects can be of almost any shape or geometry, and are produced from a [[3D modeling|3D model]] or other electronic data source.  A 3D printer is a type of [[industrial robot]].

''3D printing'' in the term's original [[word sense|sense]] refers to processes that sequentially deposit material onto a powder bed with inkjet printer heads. More recently the meaning of the term has expanded to encompass a wider variety of techniques such as [[extrusion]] and [[sintering]] based processes. [[Technical standard]]s generally use the term ''additive manufacturing'' for this broader sense.

== History ==

=== Terminology and methods ===
[[File:84530877 FillingSys (9415669149).jpg|thumb|300px|CAD model used for 3D printing]]

Earlier AM equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s.<ref name="3D opp" /> In 1981, Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two AM fabricating methods of a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer, where the UV exposure area is controlled by a mask pattern or the scanning fiber transmitter.<ref>Hideo Kodama, "A Scheme for Three-Dimensional Display by Automatic Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Model," IEICE TRANSACTIONS on Electronics (Japanese Edition), vol.J64-C, No.4, pp.237-241, April 1981</ref><ref>Hideo Kodama, "Automatic method for fabricating a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer," Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 52, No. 11, pp 1770-1773, November 1981</ref> Then in 1984, [[Chuck Hull]] of [[3D Systems|3D Systems Corporation]]<ref name="AutoSQ-1"/> developed a prototype system based on this process known as [[stereolithography]], in which layers are added by curing [[photopolymers]] with [[ultraviolet light]] [[lasers]]. Hull defined the process as a "system for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed,"<ref name="AutoSQ-4"/><ref name="AutoSQ-5"/> but this had been already invented by Kodama. Hull's contribution is the design of the [[STL (file format)|STL (STereoLithography) file format]] widely accepted by 3D printing software as well as the digital slicing and infill strategies common to many processes today. The term ''3D printing'' originally referred to a process employing standard and custom [[inkjet]] print heads. The technology used by most 3D printers to date—especially hobbyist and consumer-oriented models—is [[fused deposition modeling]], a special application of plastic [[extrusion]].

AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as [[selective laser sintering]], [[direct metal laser sintering]], and [[selective laser melting]]) usually went by their own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. Nearly all metalworking production at the time was by [[casting]], [[metal fabrication|fabrication]], [[stamping (metalworking)|stamping]], and [[machining]]; even though plenty of [[automation]] was applied to those technologies (such as by [[robot welding]] and [[numerical control|CNC]]), the idea of a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer was associated by most people only with processes that removed metal (rather than adding it), such as CNC [[milling (machining)|milling]], CNC [[electrical discharge machining|EDM]], and many others. But AM-type sintering was beginning to challenge that assumption. By the mid 1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at [[Stanford]] and [[Carnegie Mellon University]], including microcasting<ref>{{cite journal |title=Shape Deposition Manufacturing With Microcasting: Processing, Thermal and Mechanical Issues |journal=Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering |date=1998 |last=Amon |first=C. H. |last2=Beuth |first2=J. L. |last3=Weiss |first3=L. E. |last4=Merz |first4=R. |last5=Prinz |first5=F. B. |volume=120 |issue=3 |url=https://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1219&context=ece |format=PDF |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> and sprayed materials.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Manufacturing Mechatronics Using Thermal Spray Shape Deposition |journal=Proceedings of the 1992 Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium |date=1992 |last=Beck |first=J.E. |last2=Fritz |first2=B. |last3=Siewiorek |first3=Daniel |last4=Weiss |first4=Lee |url=https://utwired.engr.utexas.edu/lff/symposium/proceedingsarchive/pubs/manuscripts/1992/1992-31-beck.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2014-12-20 }}</ref> Sacrificial and support materials had also become more common, enabling new object geometries.<ref>{{cite conference |last=Prinz |first=F. B. |last2=Merz |first2=R. |last3=Weiss |first3=Lee |title=Building Parts You Could Not Build Before |conference=Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Production Engineering |editor-last=Ikawa |editor-first=N. |publisher=Chapman & Hall |place=2-6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK |date=1997 |pages=40–44 }}</ref>

The [[umbrella term]] ''additive manufacturing'' gained wider currency in the [[2000s (decade)|decade of the 2000s]]<ref name="Ngram_additive_manufacturing"/> as the various additive processes matured and it became clear that soon metal removal would no longer be the only metalworking process done under that type of control (a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer). It was during this decade that the term ''subtractive manufacturing'' appeared as a [[retronym]] for the large family of machining processes with metal removal as their common theme. However, at the time, the term ''3D printing'' still referred only to the polymer technologies in most minds, and the term ''AM'' was likelier to be used in metalworking contexts than among polymer/inkjet/stereolithography enthusiasts. The term ''subtractive'' has not replaced the term ''machining'', instead [[wikt:complement#Verb|complementing]] it when a term that covers any removal method is needed.

By the early 2010s, the terms ''3D printing'' and ''additive manufacturing'' developed [[word sense|senses]] in which they were [[synonym]]ous umbrella terms for all AM technologies. Although this was a departure from their earlier technically narrower senses, it reflects the simple fact that the technologies all share the common theme of sequential-layer material addition/joining throughout a 3D work envelope under automated control. (Other terms that have appeared, which are usually used as AM synonyms (although sometimes as [[hyponymy and hypernymy|hypernyms]]), have been ''desktop manufacturing'', ''rapid manufacturing'' [as the logical production-level successor to ''[[rapid prototyping]]''], and ''on-demand manufacturing'' [which echoes ''[[print on demand|on-demand printing]]'' in the 2D sense of ''printing''].) The 2010s were the first decade in which metal parts such as engine brackets<ref name="GrabCAD_GE_bracket"/> and large nuts<ref name="AutoSQ-6"/> would be grown (either before or instead of machining) in [[job production]] rather than [[wikt:obligate#Adjective|obligately]] being machined from [[bar stock]] or plate.

== General principles ==
[[File:Rapid prototyping slicing.jpg|thumb|3D model slicing]]

=== Modeling ===
{{main|3D modeling}}

3D printable models may be created with a [[computer aided design]] (CAD) package or via a [[3D scanner#Hand-held laser scanners|3D scanner]] or via a plain digital camera and [[photogrammetry]] software.

The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of analysing and collecting digital data on the shape and appearance of a real object. Based on this data, three-dimensional models of the scanned object can then be produced.

Regardless of the 3D modeling software used, the 3D model (often in .skp, .dae, .3ds or some other format) then needs to be converted to either a .STL or a .OBJ format, to allow the printing (a.k.a. "CAM") software to be able to read it.

=== Printing ===

Before printing a 3D model from an [[STL (file format)|STL]] file, it must first be examined for "manifold errors," this step being called the "fixup." Especially STLs that have been produced from a model obtained through [[3D scanner|3D scanning]] often have many manifold errors in them that need to be fixed. Examples of manifold errors are surfaces that do not connect, or gaps in the models. Examples of software that can be used to fix these errors are [[netfabb]] and [[Meshmixer]], or even Cura, or [[Slic3r]].<ref name="ReferenceB">MAKE:3D printing by Anna Kaziunas France</ref><ref>Cura and Slic3r have some fixup tools, despite being mainly a slicer program</ref>

Once that's done, the .STL file needs to be processed by a piece of software called a "slicer" which converts the model into a series of thin layers and produces a [[G-code|G-code file]] containing instructions tailored to a specific type of 3D printer ([[Fused deposition modeling|FDM printers]]). This G-code file can then be printed with [[3D printing client]] software (which loads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during the 3D printing process). It should be noted here that in practice the client software and the slicer are often combined into one software program. Several open source slicer programs exist, including Skeinforge, Slic3r, and Cura as well as closed source programs including Simplify3D and KISSlicer. Examples of 3D printing clients include [[Repetier-Host]], [[ReplicatorG]], and Printrun/Pronterface.
[[File:3D printed Spinosaurus skulls.jpg|thumb|Scanned skull of ''[[Spinosaurus]]'' printed in two sizes]] 
Note that there is one other piece of software that is often used by people using 3D printing, namely a [[GCode viewer]]. This software lets one examine the route of travel of the printer nozzle. By examining this, the user can decide to modify the GCode to print the model a different way (for example in a different position, e.g. standing versus lying down) so as to save plastic (depending on the position and nozzle travel, more or less support material may be needed). Examples of GCode viewers are [[Gcode Viewer for Blender]] and [[Pleasant3D]].

The 3D printer follows the G-code instructions to lay down successive layers of liquid, powder, paper or sheet material to build the model from a series of cross sections. Materials such as plastic, sand, metal, or even chocolate can be used through a print nozzle. These layers, which correspond to the virtual cross sections from the CAD model, are joined or automatically fused to create the final shape. Depending on what the printer is making, the process could take up to minutes or days. The primary advantage of this technique is its ability to create almost any shape or geometric feature.

Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X-Y resolution in [[dots per inch]] (dpi) or [[micrometer]]s (µm). Typical layer thickness is around {{convert|100|pitch|dpi|lk=on}}, although some machines such as the ''Objet Connex'' series and 3D Systems' ''ProJet'' series can print layers as thin as {{convert|16|pitch|dpi}}.<ref name="Auto3D-17" /> X-Y resolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles (3D dots) are around {{convert|50|to|100|pitch|dpi}} in diameter.

Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously.

Traditional techniques like [[injection moulding]] can be less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster, more flexible and less expensive when producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development teams the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop size printer.

=== Finishing ===

Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard resolution and then removing material<ref name="smooth"/> with a higher-resolution subtractive process can achieve greater precision.

Some printable polymers allow the surface finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapour processes.

Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials in the course of constructing parts. These techniques are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not necessarily require painting.

Some printing techniques require internal supports to be built for overhanging features during construction. These supports must be mechanically removed or dissolved upon completion of the print.

All of the commercialized metal 3-D printers involve cutting the metal component off of the metal substrate after deposition. A new process for the [[GMAW]] 3-D printing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove [[aluminum]] components manually with a hammer.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Amberlee S. Haselhuhn, Eli J. Gooding, Alexandra G. Glover, Gerald C. Anzalone, Bas Wijnen, Paul G. Sanders, Joshua M. Pearce. |title=Substrate Release Mechanisms for Gas Metal Arc 3-D Aluminum Metal Printing. |journal=3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing |volume= 1 |issue=4 |pp=204–209 |year=2014 |doi=10.1089/3dp.2014.0015 |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/3dp.2014.0015}}</ref>

== Processes ==
[[File:I robot car.jpg|thumb|The [[Audi RSQ]] was made with rapid prototyping industrial [[KUKA]] robots]]

Several different 3D printing processes have been invented since the late 1970s. The printers were originally large, expensive, and highly limited in what they could produce.<ref name="3D opp" />

A large number of additive processes are now available. The main differences between processes are in the way layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials that are used. Some methods melt or soften material to produce the layers, e.g. [[selective laser melting]] (SLM) or [[direct metal laser sintering]] (DMLS), [[selective laser sintering]] (SLS), [[fused deposition modeling]] (FDM),<ref>FDM is a proprietary term owned by [[Stratasys]]. All 3-D printers that are not Stratasys machines and use a fused filament process are referred to as or fused filament fabrication (FFF).</ref> or fused filament fabrication (FFF), while others cure liquid materials using different sophisticated technologies, e.g. [[stereolithography]] (SLA). With [[laminated object manufacturing]] (LOM), thin layers are cut to shape and joined together (e.g. paper, polymer, metal). Each method has its own advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies consequently offer a choice between powder and polymer for the material used to build the object.<ref name="Auto3D-7" /> Other companies sometimes use standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the build material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, cost of the 3D printer, cost of the printed prototype, cost and choice of materials, and color capabilities.<ref name="Auto3D-8" />

Printers that work directly with metals are expensive. In some cases, however, less expensive printers can be used to make a mould, which is then used to make metal parts.<ref name="Auto3D-9" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Type
! Technologies
! Materials
|-
|rowspan="2"| Extrusion
| [[Fused deposition modeling]] (FDM) or [[Fused Filament Fabrication]] (FFF)
| [[Thermoplastics]] (e.g. [[Polylactic acid|PLA]], [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]], HIPS, Nylon), [[HDPE]], [[eutectic]] metals, edible materials, [[Rubber]] ([[Sugru]]), [[Modeling clay]], [[Plasticine]], [[RTV silicone]], [[Porcelain]], [[Metal clay]] (including [[Precious Metal Clay]])
|-
|[[Robocasting]]
|[[Ceramic materials]], [[Metal alloy]], [[cermet]], [[metal matrix composite]], [[ceramic matrix composite]]
|-
| Wire
| [[Electron beam freeform fabrication|Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication]] (EBF<sup>3</sup>)
| Almost any [[metal alloy]]
|-
|rowspan="5"| Granular
| [[Direct metal laser sintering]] (DMLS)
| Almost any [[metal alloy]]
|-
| [[Electron-beam melting]] (EBM)
| Almost any [[metal alloy]] including [[Titanium alloy]]s
|-
| [[Selective laser melting]] (SLM)
| [[Titanium alloys]], [[Cobalt-chrome|Cobalt Chrome alloys]], [[Stainless Steel]], Aluminium
|-
| [[Selective heat sintering]] (SHS)<ref name="AutoSQ-14"/>
| Thermoplastic powder
|-
| [[Selective laser sintering]] (SLS)
| [[Thermoplastic]]s, [[Sintering#Sintering of metallic powders|metal powders]], [[Sintering#Ceramic sintering|ceramic powders]]
|-
| [[Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing]]
| Plaster-based 3D printing (PP)
| [[Plaster]]
|-
| Laminated
| [[Laminated object manufacturing]] (LOM)
| Paper, [[metal foil]], [[plastic film]]
|-
|rowspan="3"| Light polymerised
| [[Stereolithography]] (SLA)
| [[photopolymer]]
|-
| [[Digital Light Processing]] (DLP)
| photopolymer
|}

=== Extrusion deposition ===
[[File:FDM by Zureks.png|thumb|Fused deposition modeling: 1 – nozzle ejecting molten material, 2 – deposited material (modeled part), 3 – controlled movable table]]
{{main|Fused deposition modeling}}
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) was developed by [[S. Scott Crump]] in the late 1980s and was commercialized in 1990 by [[Stratasys]].<ref name="Auto3D-10" /> After the patent on this technology expired, a large open-source development community developed and both commercial and [[DIY]] variants utilizing this type of 3D printer appeared. As a result, the price of this technology has dropped by two orders of magnitude since its creation.

In fused deposition modeling the model or part is produced by extruding small beads of material which harden immediately to form layers. A [[thermoplastic]] filament or metal wire that is wound on a coil is unreeled to supply material to an [[extrusion]] nozzle head. The nozzle head heats the material and turns the flow on and off. Typically [[stepper motors]] or [[servo motors]] are employed to move the extrusion head and adjust the flow. The head can be moved in both horizontal and vertical directions, and control of the mechanism is typically done by a [[computer-aided manufacturing]] (CAM) software package running on a [[microcontroller]].

Various polymers are used, including [[acrylonitrile butadiene styrene]] (ABS), [[polycarbonate]] (PC), [[polylactic acid]] (PLA), [[high density polyethylene]] (HDPE), PC/ABS, [[polyphenylsulfone]] (PPSU) and [[high impact polystyrene]] (HIPS). In general, the polymer is in the form of a filament fabricated from virgin resins. There are multiple projects in the open-sourced community aimed at processing post-consumer plastic waste into filament. These involve machines used to shred and extrude the plastic material into filament.

FDM is somewhat restricted in the variation of shapes that may be fabricated. For example, FDM usually cannot produce stalactite-like structures, since they would be unsupported during the build. Otherwise, a thin support must be designed into the structure which can be broken away during finishing. Fused deposition modeling is also referred to as fused filament fabrication (FFF) by companies who do not hold the original patents like Stratasys does.

===  Binding of granular materials===

Another 3D printing approach is the selective fusing of materials in a granular bed. The technique fuses parts of the layer and then moves downward in the working area, adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses the unfused media to support overhangs and thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece. A laser is typically used to [[sintering|sinter]] the media into a solid. Examples include [[selective laser sintering]] (SLS), with both metals and polymers (e.g. PA, PA-GF, Rigid GF, PEEK, PS, [[Alumide]], Carbonmide, elastomers), and [[direct metal laser sintering]] (DMLS).<ref name="DMLS"/>

[[Selective laser sintering|Selective Laser Sintering]] (SLS) was developed and patented by Dr. Carl Deckard and Dr. Joseph Beaman at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] in the mid-1980s, under sponsorship of [[DARPA]].<ref name="Auto3D-3" /> A similar process was patented without being commercialized by R. F. Housholder in 1979.<ref name="Auto3D-4" />

[[Selective laser melting]] (SLM) does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but will completely melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully dense materials in a layer-wise method that has mechanical properties similar to those of conventional manufactured metals.

[[Electron beam melting]] (EBM) is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g. [[titanium alloy]]s). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum. Unlike metal sintering techniques that operate below melting point, EBM parts are fully dense, void-free, and very strong.<ref name="Auto3D-12" /><ref name="Auto3D-13" />

Another method consists of an [[Powder bed and inkjet head 3D printing|inkjet 3D printing]] system. The printer creates the model one layer at a time by spreading a layer of powder ([[plaster]], or [[resin]]s) and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an inkjet-like process. This is repeated until every layer has been printed. This technology allows the printing of full color prototypes, overhangs, and elastomer parts. The strength of bonded powder prints can be enhanced with wax or [[thermoset|thermoset polymer]] impregnation.

=== Lamination ===
{{main|Laminated object manufacturing}}

In some printers, paper can be used as the build material, resulting in a lower cost to print. During the 1990s some companies marketed printers that cut cross sections out of special adhesive coated paper using a carbon dioxide laser and then laminated them together.

In 2005 [[Mcor Technologies Ltd]] developed a different process using ordinary sheets of office paper, a [[tungsten carbide]] blade to cut the shape, and selective deposition of adhesive and pressure to bond the prototype.<ref name="AutoSQ-15"/>

There are also a number of companies selling printers that print laminated objects using thin plastic and metal sheets.

=== Photopolymerization ===
[[File:Stereolithography apparatus.jpg|thumb|Stereolithography apparatus]]
{{main|Stereolithography}}

Stereolithography was patented in 1986 by [[Chuck Hull]].<ref name="AutoSQ-16"/> [[Photopolymerization]] is primarily used in stereolithography (SLA) to produce a solid part from a liquid. This process dramatically redefined previous efforts, from the "photosculpture" method of François Willème (1830–1905) in 1860 through the photopolymerization of Mitsubishi's Matsubara in 1974.<ref name="NSF RP Report"/>  The "photosculpture" method consisted of photographing a subject from a variety of equidistant angles and projecting each photograph onto a screen, where a [[pantagraph]] was used to trace the outline onto modeling clay<ref name="AutoSQ-17"/><ref name="AutoSQ-18"/><ref name="AutoSQ-19"/>)

In photo-polymerization, a vat of liquid polymer is exposed to controlled lighting under [[safelight]] conditions. The exposed liquid polymer hardens. The build plate then moves down in small increments and the liquid polymer is again exposed to light. The process repeats until the model has been built. The liquid polymer is then drained from the vat, leaving the solid model. The [[EnvisionTEC]] ''Perfactory''<ref name="Auto3D-14" /> is an example of a DLP rapid prototyping system.

Inkjet printer systems like the ''Objet PolyJet'' system spray photopolymer materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers (between 16 and 30&nbsp;µm) until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer is [[Curing (chemistry)|cured]] with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can be handled and used immediately, without post-curing. The gel-like support material, which is designed to support complicated geometries, is removed by hand and water jetting. It is also suitable for elastomers.

Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication technique used in [[two-photon absorption|multiphoton]] photopolymerisation. This approach uses a focused laser to trace the desired 3D object into a block of gel. Due to the nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places where the laser was focused while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under 100&nbsp;nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.<ref name="Auto3D-15" />

Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using [[LED]]s.<ref name="Auto3D-16" />

In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography a 3D digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each slice is converted into a two-dimensional mask image. The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the layer.<ref name=k1113/> The technique has been used to create objects composed of multiple materials that cure at different rates.<ref name=k1113/> In research systems, the light is projected from below, allowing the resin to be quickly spread into uniform thin layers, reducing production time from hours to minutes.<ref name=k1113/> Commercially available devices such as Objet Connex apply the resin via small nozzles.<ref name="k1113"/>

== Printers ==

=== Industry use===
As of May 2011, [[Ultimaker]] now sells additive manufacturing systems that range from $1,300 to $2,750 in price and are employed in several industries: aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and medical replacements, among many others. For example, [[General Electric]] uses the high-end model to build parts for [[turbine]]s.<ref name="cfr2013"/>

=== Consumer use ===
[[File:RepRap 'Mendel'.jpg|thumb|RepRap version 2.0 (Mendel)]]
[[File:MakerBot ThingOMatic Bre Pettis.jpg|thumb|left|[[MakerBot]] Cupcake CNC]]
[[File:Printing in progress in a 3D printer.webm|thumb|Printing in progress in a [[Ultimaker]] 3D printer during Mozilla Maker party, Bangalore]]
[[File:3D-Printed-Building-5641.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Large scale industrial 3D printing]]

Several projects and companies are making efforts to develop affordable 3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this work has been driven by and targeted at [[Do it yourself|DIY]]/enthusiast/[[early adopter]] communities, with additional ties to the academic and [[Hacker (hobbyist)|hacker]] communities.<ref name="Auto3D-26" />

RepRap is one of the longest running projects in the desktop category. The RepRap project aims to produce a [[free and open source hardware]] (FOSH) 3D printer, whose full specifications are released under the [[GNU General Public License]], and which is capable of replicating itself by printing many of its own (plastic) parts to create more machines.<ref name="AutoSQ-20"/><ref name="AutoSQ-21"/> RepRaps have already been shown to be able to print [[circuit board]]s<ref name="AutoSQ-22"/> and metal parts.<ref name="AutoSQ-23"/><ref name="AutoSQ-24"/>

Because of the FOSH aims of RepRap, many related projects have used their design for inspiration, creating an ecosystem of related or derivative 3D printers, most of which are also open source designs. The availability of these open source designs means that variants of 3D printers are easy to invent. The quality and complexity of printer designs, however, as well as the quality of kit or finished products, varies greatly from project to project. This rapid development of open source 3D printers is gaining interest in many spheres as it enables hyper-customization and the use of [[public domain]] designs to fabricate [[open source appropriate technology]]. This technology can also assist initiatives in [[sustainable development]] since technologies are easily and economically made from resources available to local communities.<ref name="Auto3D-27" /><ref name="AutoSQ-25"/>

The cost of 3D printers has decreased dramatically since about 2010, with machines that used to cost $20,000 now costing less than $1,000.<ref name="AutoSQ-26"/> For instance, as of 2013, several companies and individuals are selling parts to build various RepRap designs, with prices starting at about {{€|400}} / {{US$|500}}.<ref name="printerlist" /> The open source [[Fab@Home]] project<ref name="fabathome" /> has developed printers for general use with anything that can be squirted through a nozzle, from chocolate to silicone sealant and chemical reactants. Printers following the project's designs have been available from suppliers in kits or in pre-assembled form since 2012 at prices in the US$2000 range.<ref name="printerlist" /> The [[Kickstarter]] funded [[Peachy Printer]] is designed to cost $100<ref name="AutoSQ-27"/> and several other new 3D printers are aimed at the small, inexpensive market including the mUVe3D and Lumifold. [[Rapide 3D]] has designed a professional grade crowdsourced 3D-printer costing $1499 which has no fumes nor constant rattle during use.<ref name="AutoSQ-28"/> The [[3Doodler]], "3D printing pen", raised $2.3&nbsp;million on Kickstarter with the pens selling at $99,<ref name="AutoSQ-29"/> though the 3D Doodler has been criticised for being more of a crafting pen than a 3D printer.<ref name="AutoSQ-30"/>

As the costs of 3D printers have come down they are becoming more appealing financially to use for self-manufacturing of personal products.<ref name="wittbrodt" /> In addition, 3D printing products at home may reduce the environmental impacts of manufacturing by reducing material use and distribution impacts.<ref name="AutoSQ-31"/>

In addition, several [[RecycleBot]]s such as the commercialised Filastruder have been designed and fabricated to convert waste plastic, such as shampoo containers and milk jugs, into inexpensive RepRap filament.<ref name="RPJ"/> There is some evidence that using this approach of distributed recycling is better for the environment.<ref name="AutoSQ-32"/>

The development and hyper-customization of the RepRap-based 3D printers has produced a new category of printers suitable for small business and consumer use. Manufacturers such as [[Solidoodle]],<ref name="cfr2013"/> [[Robo 3D]], [[RepRap Project|RepRapPro]] and [[Pirx 3D]] have introduced models and kits priced at less than $1,000, thousands less than they were in September 2012.<ref name="cfr2013"/> Depending on the application, the print resolution and speed of manufacturing lies somewhere between a personal printer and an industrial printer. A list of printers with pricing and other information is maintained.<ref name="printerlist" /> Most recently [[delta robots]], like the [[TripodMaker]], have been utilised for 3D printing to increase fabrication speed further.<ref name="AutoQK-1"/> For delta 3D printers, due to its geometry and differentiation movements, the accuracy of the print depends on the position of the printer head.<ref name="AutoSQ-33"/>

Some companies are also offering software for 3D printing, as a support for hardware manufactured by other companies.<ref name="MatterHackers Opens 3D Printing Store and Releases MatterControl 0.7.6"/>

=== Large 3D printers ===
Large 3D printers have been developed for industrial, education, and demonstrative uses. A large [[Delta robot|delta-style]] 3D printer was built in 2014 by SeeMeCNC. The printer is capable of making an object with diameter of up to {{Convert|4|ft}} and up to {{Convert|10|ft}} in height. It also uses plastic pellets as the raw material instead of the typical plastic filaments used in other 3D printers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hoosier Daddy – The Largest Delta 3D Printer In the World|url=https://www.3dprinterworld.com/article/hoosier-daddy-largest-delta-3d-printer-world|accessdate=28 September 2014|work=3D Printer World|publisher=Punchbowl Media|date=23 July 2014}}</ref>

Another type of large printer is Big Area Additive Manufacturing (BAAM). The goal is to develop printers that can produce a large object in high speed. A BAAM machine of Cincinnati Incorporated can produce an object at the speeds 200-500 times faster than typical 3D printers available in 2014. Another BAAM machine is being developed by [[Lockheed Martin]] with an aim to print long objects of up to {{Convert|100|ft}} to be used in aerospace industries.<ref>{{cite news|last1=McKenna|first1=Beth|title=The Next Big Thing in 3-D Printing: Big Area Additive Manufacturing, or BAAM|url=https://www.fool.com/investing/general/2014/04/26/the-next-big-thing-in-3-d-printing-big-area-addi-2.aspx|accessdate=28 September 2014|work=The Motley Fool|date=26 April 2014}}</ref>

==Manufacturing applications==

{{ quotation
| Three-dimensional printing makes it as cheap to create single items as it is to produce thousands and thus undermines [[economies of scale]]. It may have as profound an impact on the world as the coming of the factory did....Just as nobody could have predicted the impact of the [[History of the steam engine|steam engine in 1750]]—or the [[Global spread of the printing press|printing press in 1450]], or the [[History of the transistor|transistor in 1950]]—it is impossible to foresee the long-term impact of 3D printing. But the technology is coming, and it is likely to disrupt every field it touches.
| ''[[The Economist]]'', in a February 10, 2011 leader<ref name="Auto3D-18" />
}}

AM technologies found applications starting in the 1980s in [[product development]], [[data visualization]], [[rapid prototyping]], and specialized manufacturing. Their expansion into production ([[job production]], [[mass production]], and [[distributed manufacturing]]) has been under development in the decades since. Industrial production roles within the [[metalworking]] industries<ref name="Zelinski_2014-06-25"/> achieved significant scale for the first time in the early 2010s. Since the start of the 21st century there has been a large growth in the sales of AM machines, and their price has dropped substantially.<ref name="Auto3D-2" /> According to Wohlers Associates, a consultancy, the market for 3D printers and services was worth $2.2&nbsp;billion worldwide in 2012, up 29% from 2011.<ref name="AutoSQ-2"/> There are many applications for AM technologies, including architecture, construction (AEC), [[industrial design]], automotive, [[aerospace]],<ref>Development of a Three-Dimensional Printed, Liquid-Cooled Nozzle for a Hybrid Rocket Motor, Nick Quigley and James Evans Lyne, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 30, No. 6 (2014), pp. 1726-1727.</ref> military, [[engineering]], dental and medical industries, biotech (human tissue replacement), fashion, footwear, jewelry, eyewear, education, geographic information systems, food, and many other fields.

Additive manufacturing's earliest applications have been on the [[toolroom]] end of the manufacturing spectrum. For example, [[rapid prototyping]] was one of the earliest additive variants, and its mission was to reduce the [[lead time]] and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods (typically slowly and expensively).<ref name="TMW_2011-02_Origins" /> With technological advances in additive manufacturing, however, and the dissemination of those advances into the business world, additive methods are moving ever further into the production end of manufacturing in creative and sometimes unexpected ways.<ref name="TMW_2011-02_Origins" /> Parts that were formerly the sole province of subtractive methods can now in some cases be made more profitably via additive ones.

=== Distributed manufacturing ===
{{main|3D printing marketplace}}

Additive manufacturing in combination with [[cloud computing]] technologies allows decentralized and geographically independent distributed production.<ref name="Bopp2010"/> [[Distributed manufacturing]] as such is carried out by some enterprises; there is also a service to put people needing 3D printing in contact with owners of printers.<ref name="AutoSQ-119"/>

Some companies offer on-line 3D printing services to both commercial and private customers,<ref name="Auto3D-28" /> working from 3D designs uploaded to the company website. 3D-printed designs are either shipped to the customer or picked up from the service provider.<ref name="Auto3D-29" />

=== Mass customization ===
Companies have created services where consumers can customise objects using simplified web based customisation software, and order the resulting items as 3D printed unique objects.<ref name="AutoQK-2"/><ref name="AutoQK-3"/> This now allows consumers to create custom cases for their mobile phones.<ref name="AutoSQ-34"/> Nokia has released the 3D designs for its case so that owners can customise their own case and have it 3D printed.<ref name="AutoSQ-35"/>

=== Rapid manufacturing ===

Advances in RP technology have introduced materials that are appropriate for final manufacture, which has in turn introduced the possibility of directly manufacturing finished components. One advantage of 3D printing for rapid manufacturing lies in the relatively inexpensive production of small numbers of parts.

Rapid manufacturing is a new method of manufacturing and many of its processes remain unproven. 3D printing is now entering the field of rapid manufacturing and was identified as a "next level" technology by many experts in a 2009 report.<ref name="Auto3D-19" /> One of the most promising processes looks to be the adaptation of [[selective laser sintering]] (SLS), or [[direct metal laser sintering]] (DMLS) some of the better-established rapid prototyping methods. {{As of|2006}}, however, these techniques were still very much in their infancy, with many obstacles to be overcome before RM could be considered a realistic manufacturing method.<ref name="Auto3D-20" />

=== Rapid prototyping ===
[[File:Wearable 3D Printed Shoes.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Wearable 3D printed shoes]]
[[File:Miniature human face models made through 3D Printing (Rapid Prototyping).jpg|thumb|Miniature face models (from FaceGen) produced using several colored plastics on a 3D Printer]]
[[File:Printing with a 3D printer at Makers Party Bangalore 2013 11.JPG|thumb|A 3D printer at Maker's Party Bangalore 2013, Bangalore]]
{{main|rapid prototyping}}

Industrial 3D printers have existed since the early 1980s and have been used extensively for rapid prototyping and research purposes. These are generally larger machines that use proprietary powdered metals, casting media (e.g. sand), plastics, paper or cartridges, and are used for [[rapid prototyping]] by universities and commercial companies.

=== Research ===
3D printing can be particularly useful in research labs due to its ability to make specialised, bespoke geometries. In 2012 a [[proof of principle]] project at the [[University of Glasgow]], UK, showed that it is possible to use 3D printing techniques to assist in the production of [[chemical compound]]s. They first printed chemical [[reaction vessel]]s, then used the printer to deposit [[reactant]]s into them.<ref name="chem" /> They have produced new compounds to verify the validity of the process, but have not pursued anything with a particular application.<ref name="chem" />

=== Food ===
Cornell Creative Machines Lab announced in 2012 that it was possible to produce customised food with 3D Hydrocolloid Printing.<ref name="Auto3D-41" /> Additative manufacturing of food is currently being developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and flat foods such as crackers, pasta,<ref name="AutoSQ-72"/> and pizza.<ref>{{cite web|title=Foodini 3D Printer Cooks Up Meals Like the Star Trek Food Replicator|url=https://inhabitat.com/foodini-3d-printer-will-make-all-your-meals-for-you-like-the-star-trek-food-replicator|accessdate=27 January 2015}}</ref>

Professor [[Leroy Cronin]] of [[Glasgow University]] proposed in a 2012 [[TED Talk]] that it was possible to use chemical inks to print medicine.<ref name="AutoSQ-71"/>

==Industrial applications==

=== Apparel ===
3D printing has spread into the world of clothing with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed bikinis, shoes, and dresses.<ref name="resins-online.com"/> In commercial production Nike is using 3D printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.<ref name="resins-online.com"/><ref name="AutoSQ-45"/>

3D printing has come to the point where companies are printing consumer grade eyewear with on demand custom fit and styling (although they cannot print the lenses). On demand customization of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping.<ref name="Forbes.com"/>

=== Automobiles ===
In early 2014, the Swedish [[supercar]] manufacturer, [[Koenigsegg]], announced the One:1, a supercar that utilises many components that were 3D printed. In the limited run of vehicles Koenigsegg produces, the One:1 has side-mirror internals, air ducts, titanium exhaust components, and even complete turbocharger assembles that have been 3D printed as part of the manufacturing process.<ref name="AutoSQ-36"/>

An American company, [[Local Motors]] is working with [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] and Cincinnati Incorporated to develop large-scale additive manufacturing processes suitable for printing an entire car body.<ref name="AutoSQ-37"/> The company plans to print the vehicle live in front of an audience in September 2014 at the International Manufacturing Technology Show. "Produced from a new fiber-reinforced thermoplastic strong enough for use in an automotive application, the chassis and body without drivetrain, wheels and brakes weighs a scant 450 pounds and the completed car is {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} just 40 components, a number that gets smaller with every revision."<ref name="AutoSQ-38"/>

[[Urbee]] is the name of the first car in the world car mounted using the technology 3D printing (his bodywork and his car windows were "printed"). Created in 2010 through the partnership between the US engineering group [[Kor Ecologic]] and the company [[Stratasys]] (manufacturer of printers Stratasys 3D), it is a hybrid vehicle with futuristic look.<ref>[https://www.tecmundo.com.br/impressora/6260-conheca-o-urbee-primeiro-carro-a-ser-fabricado-com-uma-impressora-3d.htm tecmundo.com.br/ ''Conheça o Urbee, primeiro carro a ser fabricado com uma impressora 3D'']</ref><ref>[https://truth-out.org/news/item/27430-the-urbee-3d-printed-car-coast-to-coast-on-10-gallons The "Urbee" 3D-Printed Car: Coast to Coast on 10 Gallons]  [[Truthout]]</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vI12MqoYQto 3D Printed Car Creator Discusses Future of the Urbee]</ref>

=== Aircraft ===
In May 2015 Airbus announced that its new [[Airbus A350 XWB]] included over 1000 components manufactured by 3D printing. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-32597809]

=== Construction ===
Until recent years models were built by hands, often, taking a long time. Thus, architects are often forced to show their clients drawings of their projects.  According to Erik Kinipper, clients usually need to see the product from all possible viewpoints in space to get a clearer picture of the design and make an informed decision. In order to get these scale models to clients in a small amount of time, architects and architecture firms tend to rely on 3D printing.<ref>Knippers., E. (n.d.). 3D Printing for Architects. Retrieved March 27, 2015, from https://www.lpfrg.com/applications/3d-printing-for-architects</ref> Using 3D printing, these firms can reduce lead times of production by 50 to 80 percent, producing scale models up to 60 percent lighter than the machined part while being sturdy.<ref>Concept Modeling. (n.d.). Retrieved March 27, 2015, from https://www.stratasys.com/solutions-applications/prototyping/concept-modeling</ref> Thus, the designs and the models are only limited by a person’s imagination.

The improvements on accuracy, speed and quality of materials in 3D printing technology have opened new doors for it to move beyond the use of 3-D printing in the modeling process and actually move it to manufacturing strategy.  A good example is Dr. Behrokh Khoshnevis’ research at the University of Southern California which resulted in a 3D printer that can build a house in 24 hours .The process is called Contour Crafting. Khoshnevis, Russell, Kwon, & Bukkapatnam, define contour crafting as an additive manufacturing process which uses computer controlled systems to repeatedly lay down layers of materials such as concrete.<ref name="ieeexplore.ieee.org">Khoshnevis, B., Russell, R., Kwon, H., & Bukkapatnam, S. (2001). Crafting large prototypes. IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, 8(3), 33-42. doi: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=956812</ref>  Bushey also discussed Khoshnevis's robot which comes equipped with a nozzle that spews out concrete and can build a home based on a set computer pattern. Contour Crafting technology has great potential for automating the construction of whole structures as well as sub-components. Using this process, a single house or a colony of houses, each with possibly a different design, may be automatically constructed in a single run, embedded in each house all the conduits for electrical, plumbing and air-conditioning.<ref name="ieeexplore.ieee.org"/>

Furthermore, the Sinterhab project is researching a lunar base constructed by 3D printing using [[Lunar soil|lunar regolith]] as a base material. Instead of adding a binding agent to the regolith, researchers are experimenting with microwave [[sintering]] to create solid blocks from the raw material.<ref name="AutoSQ-73"/>

Similar researches and projects like these could allow faster construction for lower costs, and has been investigated for construction of off-Earth habitats.<ref name="tc20120120"/><ref name="gizmodo20130131"/>

=== Electric motors and generators ===
The magnetic cores of electric machines (motors and generators) require thin laminations of special preprocessed electrical steel that are insulated from each other to reduce core iron losses. 3D printing of any product that requires core materials with special properties or forms that must be preserved during the manufacturing process, such as the material density, non-crystalline or nano-crystalline atomic structures, etc. or material isolation, may only be compatible with a hybrid 3D printing method which does not use core material altering methods, such as sintering, fusing, deposition, etc. Preprocessing the raw material is not an extra manufacturing step because all 3D Printing methods require preprocessed material for compatibility with the 3D Printing method, such as preprocessed powdered metal for deposition or fusion 3D printing.  To conveniently handle the very thin insulated laminations of amorphous or nano-crystalline metal ribbon, which can reduce electric machine core loss by up to 80%, the well-known Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) method of 3D Printing may show some compatibility for 3D-Printing of electric machines but only if the method mitigates at least the alteration of the non-crystalline structure of the amorphous material (for instance) during the forming of slot channels for holding the electric machine windings or during post manufacturing processes, such as grinding the air-gap surface to flat precision, all while enhancing the packing density of the material.

Under a contract from the US Dept. of Energy’s Arpa-E (Advanced Research Project Agency-Energy) program, a team from the United Technologies Research Center {{As of|2014|lc=y}} was working toward producing a 30&nbsp;kW induction motor using just additive manufacturing methods, trying to define an additively manufactured induction motor capable of delivering 50&nbsp;kW peak and 30&nbsp;kW continuous power over a speed range of zero to 12,000&nbsp;rpm, using motor technology that does not involve rare-earth magnets.<ref>[https://www.makepartsfast.com/2014/10/7479/3d-print-electric-motor/ Will we 3D-print electric motors?]
</ref>

=== Firearms ===
{{main|3D printed firearms}}

In 2012, the US-based group [[Defense Distributed]] disclosed plans to "[design] a working plastic [[gun]] that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer."<ref name="f20120823"/><ref name="pcm20120824"/> Defense Distributed has also designed a 3D printable AR-15 type rifle [[lower receiver]] (capable of lasting more than 650 rounds) and a 30 round M16 magazine The AR-15 has multiple receivers (both an upper and lower receiver), but the legally controlled part is the one that is serialised (the lower, in the AR-15's case). Soon after Defense Distributed succeeded in designing the first working blueprint to produce a plastic gun with a 3D printer in May 2013, the [[United States Department of State]] demanded that they remove the instructions from their website.<ref name="AutoSQ-53"/> After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised regarding the effects that 3D printing and widespread consumer-level [[CNC]] machining<ref name="AutoSQ-54"/><ref name="AutoSQ-55"/> may have on [[gun control]] effectiveness.<ref name="AutoSQ-56"/><ref name="AutoSQ-57"/><ref name="AutoSQ-58"/><ref name="AutoSQ-59"/>

In 2014, a man from Japan became the first person in the world to be imprisoned for making 3D printed firearms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url = https://www.theverge.com/2014/10/20/7022809/3d-printed-gun-maker-in-japan-sentenced-2-years|title = 3D-printed gun maker in Japan sentenced to two years in prison|last = Franzen|first = Carl}}</ref> Yoshitomo Imura posted videos and blueprints of the gun online and was sentenced to jail for two years. Police found at least two guns in his household that were capable of firing bullets.<ref name=":0" />

=== Medical ===
{{Update|section|date=February 2015}}
3D printing has been used to print patient specific implant and device for medical use. Successful operations include a titanium [[pelvis]] implanted into a British patient, titanium lower [[jaw]] transplanted to a Belgian patient,<ref name="AutoSQ-47"/> and a plastic [[vertebrate trachea|tracheal]] splint for an American infant.<ref name="AutoSQ-48"/> The hearing aid and dental industries are expected to be the biggest area of future development using the custom 3D printing technology.<ref name="AutoSQ-49"/> In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road accident.<ref name="AutoSQ-50"/> Research is also being conducted on methods to bio-print replacements for lost tissue due to arthritis and cancer.<ref name="AutoSQ-51"/>

====Medical devices====
In October 24, 2014, a five-year-old girl born without fully formed fingers on her left hand became the first ***** in the UK to have a prosthetic hand made with 3D printing technology. Her hand was designed by US-based E-nable, an [[Open design#Open-design organizations|open source design organisation]] which uses a network of volunteers to design and make prosthetics mainly for *****ren. The prosthetic hand was based on a plaster cast made by her parents.<ref>BBC News (October 2014). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-29441115 “Inverness girl Hayley Fraser gets 3D-printed hand”], BBC News, 01 October 2014. Retrieved 02 October 2014.</ref> A boy named Alex was also born with a missing arm from just above the elbow. The team was able to use 3D printing to upload an e-NABLE Myoelectric arm that runs off of servos and batteries that are actuated by the electromyography muscle. With the use of 3D printers, E-NABLE has so far distributed more than 400 plastic hands to *****ren.

Printed [[prosthetic]]s have been used in rehabilitation of crippled animals. In 2013, a 3D printed foot let a crippled duckling walk again.<ref name="AutoSQ-42"/> In 2014 a chihuahua born without front legs was fitted with a harness and wheels created with a 3D printer.<ref name="Help Animals">{{ cite web |url=https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2727947/Puppy-power-Chihuahua-born-without-legs-given-turbo-charged-makeover-fitted-3D-printed-body-harness-set-skateboard-wheels.html | title = Puppy power: Chihuahua born without front legs is given turbo-charged makeover after being fitted with 3D printed body harness and a set of skateboard wheels | publisher = The Daily Mail | date = 18 August 2014 | first = Chris | last = Pleasance | accessdate = 2014-08-21 }}</ref> 3D printed hermit crab shells let [[hermit crab]]s inhabit a new style home.<ref name="AutoSQ-43"/> A prosthetic beak was another tool developed by the use of 3D printing to help aid a bald eagle named Beauty, whose beak was severely mutilated from a shot in the face.  Since 2014, commercially available titanium knee implants made with 3D printer for dogs have been used to restore the animal mobility.  Over 10,000 dogs in Europe and U.S. have been treated after only one year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fierceanimalhealth.com/story/3d-systems-preps-global-launch-printed-knee-implants-dogs/2015-03-20|title=3D Systems preps for global launch of ‘printed’ knee implants for dogs|author=Weintraub, Arlene|publisher=fierceanimalhealth.com|date=20 March 2015|accessdate=13 April 2015}}</ref>

In February 2015, FDA approved the marketing of a surgical bolt which facilitates less-invasive foot surgery and eliminates the need to drill through bone.  The 3-D printed titanium device, 'FastForward Bone Tether Plate' is approved to use in correction surgery to treat [[bunion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fiercemedicaldevices.com/story/fda-clears-3-d-printed-device-minimally-invasive-foot-surgery/2015-02-02|title=FDA clears 3-D printed device for minimally invasive foot surgery|author=Saxena, Varun|publisher=fiercemedicaldevices.com|date=2 February 2015|accessdate=14 April 2015}}</ref>

====Bio-printing====
{{As of|2012}}, 3D [[bio-printing]] technology has been studied by [[biotechnology]] firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems.<ref name="Auto3D-38" /> The first production system for 3D tissue printing was delivered in 2009, based on [[NovoGen]] bioprinting technology.<ref name="AutoSQ-46"/> Several terms have been used to refer to this field of research: organ printing, bio-printing, body part printing,<ref name="Auto3D-39" /> and computer-aided [[tissue engineering]], among others.<ref name="Auto3D-40" /> The possibility of using 3D tissue printing to create soft tissue architectures for reconstructive surgery is also being explored.<ref>[https://www.engineering.com/3DPrinting/3DPrintingArticles/ArticleID/7379/Engineering-Ourselves-The-Future-Potential-Power-of-3D-Bioprinting.aspx Dan Thomas, Engineering Ourselves – The Future Potential Power of 3D-Bioprinting?, engineering.com, March 25, 2014]</ref>

In 2013, Chinese scientists began printing ears, livers and kidneys, with living tissue. Researchers in China have been able to successfully print [[human organs]] using specialised 3D bio printers that use living cells instead of plastic. Researchers at [[Hangzhou Dianzi University]] designed the "3D bio printer" dubbed the "Regenovo". Xu Mingen, Regenovo's developer, said that it takes the printer under an hour to produce either a mini liver sample or a four to five inch ear cartilage sample. Xu also predicted that fully functional printed organs may be possible within the next ten to twenty years.<ref name="AutoSQ-76"/><ref name="AutoSQ-77"/> In the same year, researchers at the [[University of Hasselt]], in Belgium had successfully printed a new [[jawbone]] for an 83-year-old Belgian woman.<ref name="AutoSQ-78"/>

In January 2015, it was reported that doctors at London’s [[St Thomas' Hospital]] had used images obtained from a [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] (MRI) scan to create a 3D printing replica of the heart of a two-year-old girl with a ‘very complex’ hole in it. They were then able to tailor a [[*****-Tex]] patch to effect a cure. The lead surgeon of the operating team, Professor David Anderson, told ''[[The Sunday Times]]'': “The 3D printing meant we could create a model of her heart and then see the inside of it with a replica of the hole as it looked when the heart was pumping. We could go into the operation with a much better idea of what we would find”. The 3D printing technique used by the hospital was pioneered by Dr Gerald Greil.<ref name="The Mail Online 26 January 2015">{{cite web |last= Gayle | first= Damien |url= https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2925771/Two-year-old-girl-s-living-normal-life-pioneering-surgeons-use-3D-printer-make-copy-heart.html|title= Two-year-old girl's now living a normal life after pioneering surgeons use 3D printer to make copy of her heart| date=26 January 2015 |website= Mail Online |accessdate= 8 February 2015}}</ref>

=== Computers and robots===
{{See also|Modular design|Open-source robotics}}
3D printing can be used to make laptops and other computers, including cases, as [[Novena (computing platform)|Novena]] and [[VIA OpenBook]] standard [[laptop case]]s. I.e. a [[Novena (computing platform)|Novena]] motherboard can be bought and be used in a printed VIA OpenBook case.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/2014/04/novena/ The Almost Completely Open Source Laptop Goes on Sale]</ref>

[[Open-source robotics|Open-source robots]] are built using 3D printers. [[Double Robotics]] grant access to their technology (an open [[Software development kit|SDK]]).<ref>[https://www.forbes.com/sites/tjmccue/2014/10/22/robots-and-3d-printing/ Robots And 3D Printing]</ref><ref>[https://www.intorobotics.com/use-3d-printers-best-3d-printers-build-robot/ Why to Use 3D Printers and the Best 3D Printers To Build Your Own Robot]</ref><ref>[https://www.intorobotics.com/printoo-giving-life-everyday-objects/ Printoo: Giving Life to Everyday Objects] (paper-thin, flexible [[Arduino]]-compatible modules)</ref> On the other hand, [[3&DBot]] is an [[Arduino]] 3D printer-robot with wheels<ref>[https://www.intorobotics.com/3dbot-arduino-3d-printer-robot-wheels/ 3&DBot: An Arduino 3D printer-robot with wheels]</ref> and [[ODOI]] is a 3D printed [[humanoid robot]].<ref>[https://www.intorobotics.com/lesson-building-custom-3d-printed-humanoid-robot/ A lesson in building a custom 3D printed humanoid robot]</ref>

=== Space ===
{{see also|3D-printed spacecraft|3D printing#Construction}}

In September 2014, [[SpaceX]] delivered the first zero-gravity 3-D printer to the [[International Space Station]] (ISS). On December 19, 2014, [[NASA]] emailed CAD drawings for a socket wrench to astronauts aboard the ISS, who then printed the tool using its 3-D printer. Applications for space offer the ability to print broken parts or tools on-site, as opposed to using rockets to bring along pre-manufactured items for space missions to human colonies on the moon, Mars, or elsewhere.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2014/12/19/NASA-just-emailed-the-space-station-a-new-socket-wrench/1111419017637/ |last=Hays |first= Brooks |title=NASA just emailed the space station a new socket wrench |date=2014-12-19|accessdate=2014-12-20}}</ref>
The European Space Agency plans to deliver its new Portable On-Board 3D Printer (POP3D for short) to the International Space Station by June 2015, making it the second 3D printer in space.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.space.com/28418-european-3d-printer-in-space.html |last=Brabaw |first= Kasandra |title=Europe's 1st Zero-Gravity 3D Printer Headed for Space |date=2015-01-30|accessdate=2015-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gizmag.com/pop3d-3d-printer-esa-iss/34764/ |last=Wood|first= Anthony |title=POP3D to be Europe's first 3D printer in space |date=2014-11-17|accessdate=2015-02-01}}</ref>

==Sociocultural applications==
[[File:Ted Noten Fashionista in green 2009.jpg|thumb|An example of 3D printed limited edition [[jewellery]]. This necklace is made of glassfiber-filled dyed nylon. It has rotating linkages that were produced in the same manufacturing step as the other parts]]
[[File:Guardians of Time sculpture Manfred Kielnhofer 3d printing.JPG|thumb|Guardians of Time by [[Manfred Kielnhofer]], 3D printing polished nickel steel by Shapeways 2014]]
[[File:Ceramic 3D Printing by Studio Under4.jpg|thumb|220px|right|3D printed ceramic pot]]

In 2005, a rapidly expanding hobbyist and home-use market was established with the inauguration of the [[open-source]] [[RepRap]] and [[Fab@Home]] projects. Virtually all home-use 3D printers released to-date have their technical roots in the ongoing RepRap Project and associated open-source software initiatives.<ref name="reprap heritage" /> In distributed manufacturing, one study has found<ref name="AutoSQ-3"/> that 3D printing could become a mass market product enabling consumers to save money associated with purchasing common household objects.<ref name="wittbrodt"/> For example, instead of going to a store to buy an object made in a factory by [[injection molding]] (such as a [[measuring cup]] or a [[funnel]]), a person might instead print it at home from a downloaded 3D model.

=== Art ===
In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing technology.<ref name="Auto3D-34" /> By 2007 the mass media followed with an article in the Wall Street Journal<ref name="Auto3D-35" /> and Time Magazine, listing a 3D printed design among their 100 most influential designs of the year.<ref name="Auto3D-36" /> During the 2011 London Design Festival, an installation, curated by Murray Moss and focused on 3D Printing, was held in the Victoria and Albert Museum (the V&A). The installation was called ''Industrial Revolution 2.0: How the Material World will Newly Materialize''.<ref name="Auto3D-37" />
[[File:3-d printed flower model.jpg|thumb|flower model made with a 3D printer]]

Some of the recent developments in 3D printing were revealed at the 3DPrintshow in London, which took place in November 2013 and 2014. The art section had in exposition artworks made with 3D printed plastic and metal. Several artists such as Joshua Harker, Davide Prete, Sophie Kahn, Helena Lukasova, Foteini Setaki showed how 3D printing can modify aesthetic and art processes. One part of the show focused on ways in which 3D printing can advance the medical field. The underlying theme of these advances was that these printers can be used to create parts that are printed with specifications to meet each individual. This makes the process safer and more efficient. One of these advances is the use of 3D printers to produce casts that are created to mimic the bones that they are supporting. These custom-fitted casts are open, which allow the wearer to scratch any itches and also wash the damaged area. Being open also allows for open ventilation. One of the best features is that they can be recycled to create more casts.<ref name="AutoSQ-80"/>

3D printing is becoming more popular in the customisable gifts industry, with products such as personalised mobile phone cases and dolls,<ref>{{cite web|title=Custom Bobbleheads|url=https://www.headbobble.com/|accessdate=13 January 2015}}</ref> as well as 3D printed chocolate.<ref>{{cite news|title=3D-print your face in chocolate for that special Valentine's Day gift|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/architecture-design-blog/2013/jan/25/3d-print-chocolate-face-valentines-day|publisher=The Guardian|date=25 January 2013}}</ref>

The use of [[3D scanning]] technologies allows the replication of real objects without the use of [[molding (process)|moulding]] techniques that in many cases can be more expensive, more difficult, or too invasive to be performed, particularly for precious or delicate cultural heritage artifacts<ref name="Auto3D-42" /> where direct contact with the moulding substances could harm the original object's surface.

[[Critical making]] refers to the hands on productive activities that link digital technologies to society. It is invented to bridge the gap between creative physical and conceptual exploration.<ref name="AutoSQ-63"/> The term was popularized by Matt Ratto, an Assistant Professor and director of the Critical Making lab in the Faculty of Information at the University of Toronto. Ratto describes one of the main goals of critical as "to use material forms of engagement with technologies to supplement and extend critical reflection and, in doing so, to reconnect our lived experiences with technologies to social and conceptual critique".<ref name="AutoSQ-64"/> The main focus of critical making is open design,<ref name="AutoSQ-65"/> which includes, in addition to 3D printing technologies, also other digital software and hardware. People usually reference spectacular design when explaining critical making.<ref name="AutoSQ-66"/>

=== Communication ===
Employing additive layer technology offered by 3D printing, Terahertz devices which act as waveguides, couplers and bends have been created. The complex shape of these devices could not be achieved using conventional fabrication techniques. Commercially available professional grade printer EDEN 260V was used to create structures with minimum feature size of 100&nbsp;µm. The printed structures were later DC sputter coated with gold (or any other metal) to create a Terahertz Plasmonic Device.<ref name="AutoSQ-74"/>

=== Domestic use ===

As of 2012, domestic 3D printing was mainly practised by hobbyists and enthusiasts, and was little used for practical household applications. A working clock was made<ref name="Auto3D-21" /> and [[gear]]s were printed for home woodworking machines among other purposes.<ref name="Auto3D-23" /> 3D printing was also used for ornamental objects. Web sites associated with home 3D printing tended to include backscratchers, coathooks, doorknobs etc.<ref>[https://www.yeggi.com/q/backscratcher/?s=tt Search engine for 3D printable models, "backscratcher", etc.]</ref>

The open source Fab@Home project<ref name="fabathome" /> has developed printers for general use. They have been used in research environments to produce chemical compounds with 3D printing technology, including new ones, initially without immediate application as proof of principle.<ref name="chem" /> The printer can print with anything that can be dispensed from a syringe as liquid or paste. The developers of the chemical application envisage both industrial and domestic use for this technology, including enabling users in remote locations to be able to produce their own medicine or household chemicals.<ref name="Auto3D-25" /><ref name = "BBC_2012-04-17" />

3D printing is now working its way into households and more and more *****ren are being introduced to the concept of 3D printing at earlier ages. The prospects of 3D printing are growing and as more people have access to this new innovation, new uses in households will emerge.<ref>{{cite web|last1=D'Aveni|first1=Richard|title=3-D Printing Will Change the World|url=https://hbr.org/2013/03/3-d-printing-will-change-the-world/|website=Harvard Business Review|accessdate=October 8, 2014}}</ref>

The OpenReflex [[Single-lens reflex camera|SLR]] [[Photographic film|film]] camera was developed for 3D printing as an open-source student project.<ref name="AutoSQ-44"/>

=== Education and research ===
3D printing, and open source RepRap 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the classroom.<ref>Schelly, C., Anzalone, G., Wijnen, B., & Pearce, J. M. (2015). Open-source 3-D printing Technologies for education: Bringing Additive Manufacturing to the Classroom. ''Journal of Visual Languages & Computing''.</ref><ref>Grujović, N., Radović, M., Kanjevac, V., Borota, J., Grujović, G., & Divac, D. (2011, September). 3D printing technology in education environment. ''In 34th International Conference on Production Engineering'' (pp. 29-30).</ref><ref>Mercuri, R., & Meredith, K. (2014, March). An educational venture into 3D Printing. In Integrated STEM Education Conference (ISEC), 2014 IEEE (pp. 1-6). IEEE.</ref> 3D printing allows students to create prototypes of items without the use of expensive tooling required in subtractive methods. Students design and produce actual models they can hold. The classroom environment allows students to learn and employ new applications for 3D printing.<ref name="AutoSQ-60"/> RepRaps, for example, have already been used for an educational mobile robotics platform.<ref>Gonzalez-Gomez, J., Valero-Gomez, A., Prieto-Moreno, A., & Abderrahim, M. (2012). A new open source 3d-printable mobile robotic platform for education. In ''Advances in autonomous mini robots'' (pp. 49-62). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.</ref>

Some authors have claimed that RepRap 3D printers offer an unprecedented "revolution" in [[STEM]] education.<ref>J. Irwin, J.M. Pearce, D. Opplinger, and G. Anzalone. [https://www.academia.edu/9647945/The_RepRap_3-D_Printer_Revolution_in_STEM_Education The RepRap 3-D Printer Revolution in STEM Education],''121st ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Indianapolis, IN''. Paper ID #8696 (2014).</ref> The evidence for such claims comes from both the low cost ability for [[rapid prototyping]] in the classroom by students, but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientific equipment from [[open hardware]] designs forming [[open-source labs]].<ref name="AutoSQ-68"/> Engineering and design principles are explored as well as architectural planning. Students recreate duplicates of museum items such as fossils and historical artifacts for study in the classroom without possibly damaging sensitive collections. Other students interested in graphic designing can construct models with complex working parts. 3D printing gives students a new perspective with topographic maps. Science students can study cross-sections of internal organs of the human body and other biological specimens. And chemistry students can explore 3D models of molecules and the relationship within chemical compounds.<ref name="AutoSQ-61"/>

According to a recent paper by Kostakis et al.,<ref name="AutoSQ-62"/> 3D printing and design can electrify various literacies and creative capacities of *****ren in accordance with the spirit of the interconnected, information-based world.

Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment.<ref name="AutoSQ-68"/><ref name="AutoQK-4"/>

=== Environmental use ===
In [[Bahrain]], large-scale 3D printing using a [[sandstone]]-like material has been used to create unique [[coral]]-shaped structures, which encourage coral [[polyp]]s to colonise and regenerate damaged [[reef]]s. These structures have a much more natural shape than other structures used to create [[artificial reef]]s, and, unlike concrete, are neither acid nor alkaline with neutral [[pH]].<ref name="AutoSQ-79"/>

===Specialty materials===

Consumer grade 3D printing has resulted in new materials that have been developed specifically for 3D printers. For example, filament materials have been developed to imitate wood, in its appearance as well as its texture. Furthermore, new technologies, such as infusing carbon fiber<ref name="carbon-fiber"/> into printable plastics, allowing for a stronger, lighter material. In addition to new structural materials that have been developed due to 3D printing, new technologies have allowed for patterns to be applied directly to 3D printed parts. Iron oxide-free [[Portland cement]] powder has been used to create architectural structures up to 9 feet in height.<ref name=sanfranciscocbs>{{cite news|url=https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2015/03/06/researchers-at-uc-berkeley-create-bloom-first-ever-3-d-printed-cement-structure-that-stands-9-feet-tall/|title=Researchers at UC Berkeley Create Bloom First Ever 3D-printed Cement Structure That Stands 9 Feet Tall|accessdate=23 April 2015|date=6 March 2015|publisher=cbs sanfrancisco}}</ref><ref name=inhabitat>{{cite web|url=https://inhabitat.com/worlds-largest-3d-printed-building-made-from-powdered-cement-unveiled-at-uc-berkeley/|title=UC Berkeley unveils 3D-printed "Bloom" building made of powdered cement|date=9 March 2015|accessdate=23 April 2015|first=Mike|last=Chino}}</ref><ref name=archrecord>{{cite news|url=https://archrecord.construction.com/news/2015/03/150306-Print-it-Real-Good-First-powder-based-3D-Print-Cement-Structure-unveiled-at-UC-Berkeley.asp|date=6 March 2015|accessdate=23 April 2015|title=Print it Real Good: First Powder-Based 3D Printed Cement Structure Unveiled|first=Anna|last=Fixsen}}</ref>

== Intellectual property ==
{{See also|Free hardware}}
3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries where many legal regimes, including [[patent]]s, [[industrial design right]]s, [[copyright]], and [[trademark]] may apply. However, there is not much [[jurisprudence]] to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream and individuals and hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for personal use, for non-profit distribution, or for sale.

Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to do these things, where an active intellectual property was involved, a person would have to contact the owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price.  However, many patent, design and copyright laws contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private', 'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of art protected under intellectual property (IP).  That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, non-commercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.

Patents cover inventions including processes, machines, manufactures, and compositions of matter and have a finite duration which varies between countries, but generally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.<ref name="AutoSQ-82"/>

Copyright covers an expression<ref name="wired"/> in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus 70&nbsp;years thereafter.<ref name="deal"/> If someone makes a statue, they may have copyright on the look of that statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs to print an identical or similar statue.

When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the question has appeared in US court, the courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from the functional aspects of the item.<ref name="deal"/>  In other countries the law and the courts may apply a different approach allowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the understanding that, in case of unauthorised copying, only the non-functional features may be claimed under design law whereas any technical features could only be claimed if covered by a valid patent.

=== Gun legislation and administration===

The US [[Department of Homeland Security]] and the [[Joint Regional Intelligence Center]] released a memo stating that "significant advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing may present public safety risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed guns," and that "proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by new legislation, online distribution of these 3D printable files will be as difficult to control as any other illegally traded music, movie or software files."<ref name="AutoSQ-83"/>

Internationally, where gun controls are generally tighter than in the United States, some commentators have said the impact may be more strongly felt, as alternative firearms are not as easily obtainable.<ref name="AutoSQ-84"/> European officials have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under their gun control laws,<ref name="AutoSQ-85"/> and that criminals have access to other sources of weapons, but noted that as the technology improved the risks of an effect would increase.<ref name="AutoSQ-86"/><ref name="AutoSQ-87"/> Downloads of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.<ref name="AutoSQ-88"/><ref name="AutoSQ-89"/>

Attempting to restrict the distribution over the Internet of gun plans has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread distribution of [[DeCSS]] which enabled DVD [[ripping]].<ref name="AutoSQ-90"/><ref name="AutoSQ-91"/><ref name="AutoSQ-92"/><ref name="AutoSQ-93"/> After the US government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via [[The Pirate Bay]] and other file sharing sites.<ref name="AutoSQ-94"/> Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers, to prevent them being used for printing guns.<ref name="AutoSQ-95"/><ref name="AutoSQ-96"/> 3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor [[Hod Lipson]] suggesting that gunpowder could be controlled instead.<ref name="AutoSQ-97"/><ref name="AutoSQ-98"/><ref name="AutoSQ-99"/><ref name="AutoSQ-100"/><ref name="AutoSQ-101"/><ref name="AutoSQ-102"/><ref name="AutoSQ-103"/>

== Impact ==

Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to be flexible, [[continuous improvement process|ever-improving]] users of all available technologies to remain competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also predict that this arc of technological development will counter [[globalisation]], as end users will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy products from other people and corporations.<ref name="3D opp" /> The real integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional subtractive methods rather than displacing them entirely.<ref name="Albert_2011-02_MMS_column" />

=== Social change===

Since the 1950s, a number of writers and social commentators have speculated in some depth about the social and cultural changes that might result from the advent of commercially affordable additive manufacturing technology.<ref name="AutoSQ-104"/> Amongst the more notable ideas to have emerged from these inquiries has been the suggestion that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter people's homes, so the conventional relationship between the home and the workplace might get further eroded.<ref name="AutoSQ-105"/> Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes easier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight services might also become less.<ref name="AutoSQ-106"/> Finally, given the ease with which certain objects can now be replicated, it remains to be seen whether changes will be made to current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property rights with the new technology widely available.

As 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, online social platforms have developed to support the community.<ref name="AutoSQ-107"/> This includes websites that allow users to access information such as how to build a 3D printer, as well as social forums that discuss how to improve 3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well as social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D models.<ref name="AutoSQ-108"/><ref name="AutoSQ-109"/><ref name="AutoSQ-110"/> RepRap is a wiki based website that was created to hold all information on 3d printing, and has developed into a community that aims to bring 3D printing to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such as [[Pinshape]], Thingiverse and MyMiniFactory, which was created initially to allow users to post 3D files for anyone to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of sharing 3D files. These websites have allowed for greater social interaction between users, creating communities dedicated around 3D printing.

Some <ref name="triple-c.at"/><ref name="AutoSQ-111"/><ref name="AutoSQ-112"/> call attention to the conjunction of [[Commons-based peer production]] with 3D printing and other low-cost manufacturing techniques. The self-reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be overcome with the development of economies of scope, and here, the civil society can play an important role contributing to the raising of the whole productive structure to a higher plateau of more sustainable and customised productivity.<ref name="triple-c.at"/> Further, it is true that many issues, problems and threats rise due to the large democratisation of the means of production, and especially regarding the physical ones.<ref name="triple-c.at"/> For instance, the recyclability of advanced nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons manufacturing could become easier; not to mention the implications on counterfeiting <ref name="AutoSQ-113"/> and on IP.<ref name="AutoSQ-114"/> It might be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm whose competitive dynamics were about economies of scale, [[Commons-based peer production]] and 3D printing could develop economies of scope. While the advantages of scale rest on cheap global transportation, the economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible and tangible productive resources), taking advantage of the capabilities of the fabrication tools.<ref name="triple-c.at"/> And following Neil Gershenfeld <ref name="AutoSQ-115"/> in that "some of the least developed parts of the world need some of the most advanced technologies", Commons-based peer production and 3D printing may offer the necessary tools for thinking globally but act locally in response to certain problems and needs.

[[Larry Summers]] wrote about the "devastating consequences" of 3-D printing and other technologies (robots, artificial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform routine tasks. In his view, "already there are more American men on disability insurance than doing production work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will increase rapidly in the years ahead." Summers recommends more vigorous cooperative efforts to address the "myriad devices" (e.g. tax havens, bank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of great wealth to "avoid paying" income and estate taxes, and to make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes without requiring "great social contributions" in return, including: more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly laws, reductions in "excessive" protection for intellectual property, greater encouragement of profit-sharing schemes that may benefit workers and give them a stake in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bargaining arrangements, improvements in corporate governance, strengthening of financial regulation to eliminate subsidies to financial activity, easing of land-use restrictions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep rising in value, better training for ***** people and retraining for displaced workers, and increased public and private investment in infrastructure development, e.g. in energy production and transportation.<ref name="AutoSQ-116"/>

[[Michael Spence]] wrote that "Now comes a ... powerful, wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in increasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitution and [[disintermediation]] has been underway for some time in service sectors – think of ATMs, online banking, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, mobile payment systems, and much more. This revolution is spreading to the production of goods, where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor." In his view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D printers) and, more important, in creating the software that enables machines to carry out various tasks. "Once this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is relatively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront fixed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest [in digital technologies] are compelling." Spence believes that, unlike prior digital technologies, which drove firms to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the world, the motivating force in the current wave of digital technologies "is cost reduction via the replacement of labor." For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it is "easy to imagine" that production may become "extremely" local and customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand, not anticipated or forecast demand. Spence believes that labor, no matter how inexpensive, will become a less important asset for growth and employment expansion, with labor-intensive, process-oriented manufacturing becoming less effective, and that re-localization will appear in both developed and developing countries. In his view, production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-intensive, and all countries will eventually need to rebuild their growth models around digital technologies and the human capital supporting their deployment and expansion. Spence writes that "the world we are entering is one in which the most powerful global flows will be ideas and digital capital, not goods, services, and traditional capital. Adapting to this will require shifts in mindsets, policies, investments (especially in human capital), and quite possibly models of employment and distribution."<ref name="AutoSQ-117"/>

[[Forbes]] investment pundits have predicted that 3D printing may lead to a resurgence of American Manufacturing, citing the small, creative companies that comprise the current industry landscape, and the lack of the necessary complex infrastructure in typical outsource markets.<ref name="AutoSQ-118"/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Design}}
{{div col}}

* [[List of notable 3D printed weapons and parts]]
* [[List of common 3D test models]]
* [[List of emerging technologies]]
* [[3D Hubs]]
* [[3D printing marketplace]]
* [[Additive Manufacturing File Format]]
* [[Computer numeric control]]
* [[Digital modeling and fabrication]]
* [[Laser cutting]]
* [[MakerBot Industries]]
* [[Mass customization]]
* [[Milling center]]
* [[Modular design]]
* [[Molecular assembler]]
* [[MyMiniFactory]]
* [[Open design]]
* [[Open source hardware]]
* [[Organ-on-a-chip]]
* [[Self-replicating machine]]
* [[Shapeways]]
* [[Thingiverse]]
* [[Threeding]]
* [[Volumetric printing]]
* [[Youmagine]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="AutoSQ-2">{{ cite news | url = https://www.ultimakerreview.com/ | title = 3D printing: Ultimaker 2 Review | publisher = David Hana t | date = 2014-11-07 | accessdate = 2014-12-01 }}</ref>
<ref name="reprap heritage">{{cite web |title=The RepRap's Heritage|url=https://www.fabbaloo.com/blog/2011/6/15/the-repraps-heritage.html}}</ref>
<ref name="engineer">{{ cite web | last = Excell | first = Jon | url = https://www.theengineer.co.uk/in-depth/the-big-story/the-rise-of-additive-manufacturing/1002560.article | title = The rise of additive manufacturing | publisher = The engineer | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-1">{{ cite web | url = https://www.createitreal.com/index.php/en/3d-printer/48 | title = 3D Printer Technology&nbsp;– Animation of layering | publisher = Create It Real | accessdate = 2012-01-31 }}</ref>
<ref name = "3D opp">{{ cite news | url = https://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6dc11070-d763-11e1-a378-00144feabdc0.html#axzz24gFn5Cal | title = Exploring the 3D printing opportunity | publisher = [[The Financial Times]] | author = Jane Bird | date = 2012-08-08 | accessdate = 2012-08-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-1">{{ cite news | url = https://www.pcmag.com/slideshow_viewer/0,3253,l=293816&a=289174&po=1,00.asp | title = 3D Printing: What You Need to Know | publisher = PCMag.com | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="Zelinski_2014-06-25">{{ citation | last = Zelinski | first = Peter | date = 2014-06-25 | title = Video: World's largest additive metal manufacturing plant | journal = [[Modern Machine Shop]] | url = https://www.mmsonline.com/blog/post/video-worlds-largest-additive-metal-manufacturing-plant }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-2">{{ cite web | url = https://www.ptonline.com/articles/200408cu3.html | title = 3D Printers Lead Growth of Rapid Prototyping (Plastics Technology, August 2004) | first = Lilli Manolis | last = Sherman | accessdate = 2012-01-31 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-2">{{ cite news | url = https://www.economist.com/news/technology-quarterly/21584447-digital-manufacturing-there-lot-hype-around-3d-printing-it-fast | title = 3D printing: 3D printing scales up | publisher = The Economist | date = 2013-09-07 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-3">{{ cite news | first = Heather | last = Kelly | title = Study: At-home 3D printing could save consumers "thousands" | publisher = CNN | url = https://whatsnext.blogs.cnn.com/2013/07/31/study-at-home-3-d-printing-could-save-consumers-thousands/ | date = July 31, 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="wittbrodt">{{cite doi|10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002|noedit}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-4">{{US patent|4575330|Apparatus for Production of Three-Dimensional Objects by Stereolithography (8 August 1984)}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-5">Freedman, David H. "Layer By Layer." ''Technology Review'' 115.1 (2012): 50–53. ''Academic Search Premier.'' Web. 26 July 2013.</ref>
<ref name="Ngram_additive_manufacturing">{{ cite web | title = Google Ngram of the term additive manufacturing | url = https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=additive+manufacturing&year_start=1940&year_end=2014&corpus=15&smoothing=3&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cadditive%20manufacturing%3B%2Cc0 }}</ref>
<ref name="GrabCAD_GE_bracket">{{ citation | author = GrabCAD | title = GE jet engine bracket challenge | url = https://grabcad.com/challenges/ge-jet-engine-bracket-challenge }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-6">{{ citation | last = Zelinski | first = Peter | date = 2014-06-02 | title = How do you make a howitzer less heavy? | journal = [[Modern Machine Shop]] | url = https://www.mmsonline.com/blog/post/how-do-you-make-a-howitzer-less-heavy }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-17">{{ cite web | url = https://www.ops-uk.com/3d-printers/objet-connex | title = Objet Connex 3D Printers | publisher = Objet Printer Solutions | accessdate = 2012-01-31 }}</ref>
<ref name=smooth>[https://machinedesign.com/3d-printing/how-smooth-3d-printed-parts Frick, Lindsey. How to Smooth 3D-Printed Parts. Machine Design Magazine, 29 April 2014]</ref>
<!--
<ref name="Auto3D-6">D. T. Pham, S. S. Dimov, Rapid manufacturing, Springer-Verlag, 2001, ISBN 978-1-85233-360-7, page 6</ref>
 -->
<ref name="Auto3D-7">{{ cite news | url = https://www.economist.com/theworldin/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10105016 | title = A whole new dimension&nbsp;– Rich homes can afford 3D printers | work = The Economist | date = November 15, 2007 | first = Lilli Manolis | last = Sherman | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-8">{{ cite web | url = https://wohlersassociates.com/NovDec05TCT3dp.htm | title = Factors to Consider When Choosing a 3D Printer (WohlersAssociates.com, Nov/Dec 2005) | first = Terry | last=Wohlers | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-9">{{ cite web | author = www.3ders.org | url = https://www.3ders.org/articles/20120925-casting-aluminum-parts-directly-from-3d-printed-pla-parts.html | title = Casting aluminum parts directly from 3D printed PLA parts | publisher = 3ders.org | date = 2012-09-25 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-14">{{ cite web | url = https://www.blueprinter.dk/shs.html | title = Affordable 3D Printing with new Selective Heat Sintering (SHS™) technology | publisher = blueprinter }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-10">{{ cite book | title = Rapid Prototyping | author = Chee Kai Chua |author2=Kah Fai Leong |author3=Chu Sing Lim | date = 2003 | publisher = World Scientific | isbn = 978-981-238-117-0 | page = 124 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=hpNT01xw4EEC&pg=PA124&dq=Stratasys | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name=DMLS>[https://machinedesign.com/metals/aluminum-powder-3d-printed-part-finishes-race-first Frick, Lindsey. Aluminum-powder DMLS-printed part finishes race first. Machine Design Magazine, 3 March 2014]</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-3">Deckard, C., "Method and apparatus for producing parts by selective sintering", {{US patent|4863538}}, filed October 17, 1986, published September 5, 1989.</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-4">Housholder, R., "Molding Process", {{US patent|4247508}}, filed December 3, 1979, published January 27, 1981.</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-12">{{ cite web | url = https://www.eetimes.com/design/industrial-control/4013703/Rapid-prototypes-move-to-metal-components | title = Rapid prototypes move to metal components (EE Times, 3/9/2007) | first = Joe | last = Hiemenz | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-13">{{ cite web | url = https://www.smu.edu/Lyle/Departments/ME/Research/CLAM/Research/Rapid_Manufacturing | title = Rapid Manufacturing by Electron Beam Melting | publisher = SMU.edu | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-15">[https://www.rapidtoday.com/mcor.html "3D Printer Uses Standard Paper", "Rapid Today", May, 2008]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-16">{{US patent|4575330 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-17">[https://image.eastmanhouse.org/files/GEH_1958_07_05.pdf Beaumont Newhall (May 1958) "Photosculpture," ''Image'', '''7''' (5) : 100–105]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-18">François Willème, "Photo-sculpture," U.S. Patent no. 43,822 (August 9, 1864). Available on-line at: {{US patent|43822}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-19">François Willème (May 15, 1861) "La sculpture photographique", ''Le Moniteur de la photographie'', p. 34.</ref>
<ref name="NSF RP Report">[https://www.wtec.org/pdf/rp_vi.pdf NSF JTEC/WTEC Panel Report-RPA]</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-14">{{ cite web | url = https://envisiontec.com/products/perfactory-4-standard-with-erm/ | title = EnvisionTEC Perfactory | publisher = EnvisionTEC | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-15">{{ cite web | url = https://www.eetimes.com/news/semi/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=198701422 | title = Cheaper avenue to 65 nm? (EE Times, 3/30/2007) | first = R. Colin | last = Johnson | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-16">{{ cite web | url = https://amt.tuwien.ac.at/projekte/micro_printer | title = The World's Smallest 3D Printer | date = 12 September 2011 | publisher = [[Vienna University of Technology|TU Wien]] | accessdate = }}</ref>
<ref name="k1113">{{ cite web | url = https://www.kurzweilai.net/3d-printing-multi-material-objects-in-minutes-instead-of-hours-to-minutes | title = 3D-printing multi-material objects in minutes instead of hours | date = November 22, 2013 | publisher = Kurzweil Accelerating Intelligence }}</ref>
<ref name="cfr2013">{{ cite web| url= https://www.cfr.org/technology-and-science/3d-printing-challenges-opportunities-international-relations/p31709 | title= 3D Printing: Challenges and Opportunities for International Relations | date= October 23, 2013 | work= Transcript | publisher = [[Council on Foreign Relations]] | accessdate= 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-26">{{ cite web | url = https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=131644649 | title = A Space For DIY People To Do Their Business (NPR.org, November 28, 2010) | first = Jon | last=Kalish | accessdate = 2012-01-31 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-20">Jones, R., Haufe, P., Sells, E., Iravani, P., Olliver, V., Palmer, C., & Bowyer, A. (2011). Reprap-- the replicating rapid prototyper. Robotica, 29(1), 177-191.</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-21">{{ cite web | url = https://www.computerworld.co.nz/article/495672/open_source_3d_printer_copies_itself/ | title = Open source 3D printer copies itself | publisher = Computerworld New Zealand | date = 2008-04-07 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-22">[https://blog.reprap.org/2009/04/first-reprapped-circuit.html RepRap blog 2009 visited 2/26/2014]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-23">[https://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/10/science/an-inexpensive-way-to-print-out-metal-parts.html?_r=0 An Inexpensive Way to Print Out Metal Parts - The New York Times]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-24">[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6678531&queryText%3Dopen+source+3d+metal+printer Gerald C. Anzalone, Chenlong Zhang, Bas Wijnen, Paul G. Sanders and Joshua M. Pearce, " Low-Cost Open-Source 3-D Metal Printing" ''IEEE Access'', 1, pp.803-810, (2013). doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2293018]</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-27">{{ cite journal | url = https://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jsd/article/view/6984 | title = 3-D Printing of Open Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development | journal = Journal of Sustainable Development |volume=3 |number=4 |date=2010 | pages = 17–29 | first = Joshua M. | last = Pearce | accessdate = 2012-01-31 | doi=10.5539/jsd.v3n4p17|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-25">[https://techfortrade.org/our-initiatives/3d4d-challenge/ Tech for Trade, 3D4D Challenge]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-26">[https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/02/17/disruptions-3-d-printing-is-on-the-fast-track/?nl=todaysheadlines&emc=edit_th_20130218 Disruptions: 3-D Printing Is on the Fast Track&nbsp;– NYTimes.com]</ref>
<ref name="printerlist">{{ cite web | author = www.3ders.org | url = https://www.3ders.org/pricecompare/3dprinters/ | title = 3D printers list with prices | publisher = 3ders.org | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="fabathome">[https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn10922-desktop-fabricator-may-kickstart-home-revolution.html New Scientist magazine: Desktop fabricator may kick-start home revolution, 9 January 2007]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-27">{{ cite news | title = 3D printer by Saskatchewan man gets record crowdsourced cash | date = 6 November 2013 | url = https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/saskatchewan/3d-printer-by-sask-man-gets-record-crowdsourced-cash-1.2417416 | location = Saskatchewan | publisher = CBC News | accessdate = 8 November 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-28">{{ cite news | title = Rapide One&nbsp;– Affordable Professional Desktop 3D Printer by Rapide 3D | date = December 2, 2013 | url = https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/rapide-one-affordable-professional-desktop-3d-printer-by-rapide-3d/x/2711116 | publisher = Indiegogo | accessdate = 20 January 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-29">[https://www.yahoo.com/tech/kickstarter-review-the-3doodler-pen-70978316285.html Pogue, David. "A Review Of The 3Doodler Pen, Which Raised Over $2 Million On Kickstarter". Yahoo Tech. Retrieved 13 March 2014]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-30">[https://singularityhub.com/2013/02/27/kickstarter-3doodler-3d-printing-pen-nothing-of-the-sort-but-somehow-raises-2-million/ Dorrier, Jason. "Kickstarter 3Doodler 3D Printing Pen Nothing of the Sort&nbsp;– But Somehow Raises $2 Million". Singularity Hub. Retrieved 13 March 2014]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-31">{{cite doi|10.1021/sc400093k|noedit}}</ref>
<ref name="RPJ">[https://www.academia.edu/2643418/Distributed_Recycling_of_Waste_Polymer_into_RepRap_Feedstock Christian Baechler, Matthew DeVuono, and Joshua M. Pearce, "Distributed Recycling of Waste Polymer into RepRap Feedstock". ''Rapid Prototyping Journal,'' '''19''' (2), pp. 118-125 (2013). DOI:10.1108/13552541311302978]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-32">[https://www.academia.edu/2921972/Distributed_Recycling_of_Post-Consumer_Plastic_Waste_in_Rural_Areas Kreiger, M., Anzalone, G. C., Mulder, M. L., Glover, A., & Pearce, J. M. (2013). Distributed Recycling of Post-Consumer Plastic Waste in Rural Areas. MRS Online Proceedings Library, 1492, mrsf12-1492]</ref>
<ref name="AutoQK-1">[https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:17175 See for example the Rostock]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-33">{{ cite web | last = Vandendriessche | first = Pieter-Jan | title = delta 3D printer accuracy | url = https://www.tripodmaker.com/tripodmaker-3d-printing-accuracy/ }}</ref>
<ref name="MatterHackers Opens 3D Printing Store and Releases MatterControl 0.7.6">{{ cite web | url = https://www.3dprinterworld.com/article/matterhackers-opens-3d-printing-store-and-releases-mattercontrol-076 | title=MatterHackers Opens 3D Printing Store and Releases MatterControl 0.7.6 | work=[[3D Printer World]] | date=July 11, 2013 | accessdate=November 30, 2013 | author=Titsch, Mike }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-18">{{ cite news | url = https://www.economist.com/node/18114327?story_id=18114327 | title = Print me a Stradivarius&nbsp;– How a new manufacturing technology will change the world | publisher = Economist Technology | accessdate = 2012-01-31 | date = 2011-02-10 }}</ref>
<ref name="TMW_2011-02_Origins">{{harvnb|Vincent|Earls|2011 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-19">Wohlers Report 2009, State of the Industry Annual Worldwide Progress Report on Additive Manufacturing, Wohlers Associates, ISBN 978-0-9754429-5-1</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-20">Hopkinson, N & Dickens, P 2006, 'Emerging Rapid Manufacturing Processes', in Rapid Manufacturing; An industrial revolution for the digital age, Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, W. Sus*****</ref>
<ref name="AutoQK-2">{{ cite web | url = https://makie.me | title = The action doll you designed, made real | publisher = makie.me | accessdate = January 18, 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoQK-3">{{ cite web | url = https://www.myrobotnation.com/ | title = Cubify&nbsp;— Express Yourself in 3D | publisher = myrobotnation.com | accessdate = 2014-01-25 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-34">{{ cite journal| title = Turn Your Baby's Cry Into an iPhone Case | url = https://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-03-10/turn-your-babys-cry-into-an-iphone-case | publisher = [[Bloomberg Businessweek]] | date = 2012-03-10 | accessdate = 2013-02-20 | ref = harv | postscript = {{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-35">{{ cite journal| title = Nokia backs 3D printing for mobile phone cases | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-21084430 | publisher = [[BBC News Online]] | date = 2013-02-18 | accessdate = 2013-02-20 | ref = harv | postscript = {{inconsistent citations}} }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-36">{{ cite web | url = https://www.businessinsider.com/koenigsegg-one1-comes-with-3d-printed-parts-2014-2 | title = Koenigsegg One:1 Comes With 3D Printed Parts | publisher = [[Business Insider]] | accessdate = 2014-05-14 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-37">[https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2014/07/13/lab-produces-car-using-3-d-printing/12589277/ Lab Produces Car Using 3D Printing]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-38">[https://www.foxnews.com/leisure/2014/07/03/local-motors-3d-printed-car-could-lead-american-manufacturing-revolution/ Local Motors 3D-printed Car Could Lead American Manufacturing Revolution]</ref>

<ref name="Auto3D-21">{{ cite web | author = ewilhelm | url = https://www.instructables.com/id/3D-Printed-Clock-and-Gears/ | title = 3D printed clock and gears | publisher = Instructables.com | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-23">{{ cite web | author = 23/01/2012 | url = https://3d-printer-kit.com/?p=565 | title = Successful Sumpod 3D printing of a herringbone gear | publisher = 3d-printer-kit.com | date = 2012-01-23 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-42">{{ cite web | url = https://mashable.com/2013/07/02/3d-printed-duck-foot | title = 3D-Printed Foot Lets Crippled Duck Walk Again }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-43">{{ cite news | url = https://www.wired.com/design/2013/07/3-d-printed-hermit-crab-shells-based-on-city-skylines | title = So Cute: Hermit Crabs Strut in Stylish 3-D Printed Shells | work=Wired | first = Joseph | last = Flaherty | date = 2013-07-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="chem">{{cite doi|10.1038/nchem.1313|noedit}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-25">[https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21709-make-your-own-drugs-with-a-3d-printer.html?full=true New Scientist magazine: Make your own drugs with a 3D printer, 17 April 2012]</ref>
<ref name="BBC_2012-04-17">{{ cite news | last = Cronin | first = Lee | title = 3D printer developed for drugs | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-17744314 | publisher = [[BBC News Online]] | format = video interview [5:21] | location = [[Glasgow University]] | date = 2012-04-17 | accessdate = 2013-03-06 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-44">{{ cite web | url = https://www.gizmag.com/openreflex-3d-printed-slr/28208/ | title = 3D printable SLR brings whole new meaning to "digital camera" | publisher = Gizmag.com | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="resins-online.com">{{ cite web | url = https://www.resins-online.com/blog/3d-printed-clothing/ | title = 3D Printed Clothing Becoming a Reality | publisher = Resins Online | date = 2013-06-17 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-45">{{ cite web | author = Michael Fitzgerald | url = https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/with-3-d-printing-the-shoe-really-fits/ | title = With 3-D Printing, the Shoe Really Fits | publisher = MIT Sloan Management Review | date = 2013-05-28 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="Forbes.com">{{ cite web | url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/rakeshsharma/2013/09/10/custom-eyewear-the-next-focal-point-for-3d-printing/ | title = 3D Custom Eyewear The Next Focal Point For 3D Printing | publisher = Rakesh Sharma | date = 2013-09-10 | accessdate = 2013-09-10 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-38">[https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-18677627 "3D-printed sugar network to help grow artificial liver", BBC, 2 July 2012]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-46">{{ cite web | url = https://lifescientist.com.au/content/biotechnology/news/invetech-helps-bring-bio-printers-to-life-413047968 | title = Invetech helps bring bio-printers to life | date = December 11, 2009 | accessdate = December 31, 2013|website = Australian Life Scientist | publisher = [[Westwick-Farrow Media]] }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-39">[https://www.theengineer.co.uk/in-depth/analysis/building-body-parts-with-3d-printing/1002542.article "Building body parts with 3D printing", The Engineer, 24 May 2010]</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-40">{{ cite web | url = https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=1603783&page=1 | title = 'Organ Printing' Could Drastically Change Medicine (ABC News, 2006) | first = Jonathan | last=Silverstein | accessdate = 2012-01-31 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-47">{{ cite news | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-16907104|agency=BBC | date = 2012-02-06 | title = Transplant jaw made by 3D printer claimed as first }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-48">{{ cite news | url = https://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2014/03/17/289042381/doctors-use-3-d-printing-to-help-a-baby-breathe|agency=NPR | date = 2013-03-17 | author = Rob Stein | title = Doctors Use 3-D Printing To Help A Baby Breathe }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-49">{{ cite web | url = https://www.fiercemedicaldevices.com/story/surgeons-have-implanted-3-d-printed-pelvis-uk-cancer-patient/2014-02-11 | title = Surgeons have implanted a 3-D-printed pelvis into a U.K. cancer patient | author = Moore, Calen | publisher = fiercemedicaldevices.com | date = 11 February 2014 | accessdate = 4 March 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-50">{{ cite news | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/10691753/Man-makes-surgical-history-after-having-his-shattered-face-rebuilt-using-3D-printed-parts.html/2014-03-12 | title = Man makes surgical history after having his shattered face rebuilt using 3D printed parts | author = Keith Perry | publisher = The Daily Telegraph | date = 12 March 2014 | accessdate = 12 March 2014|location=London }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-51">[https://www.3ders.org/articles/20140306-research-into-3d-bioprinting-may-soon-produce-transplantable-human-tissues.html Research into Julie Williams, 3D-Bioprinting may soon produce transplantable human tissues Mar.6, 2014]</ref>
<ref name="f20120823">{{ cite news | last = Greenberg | first = Andy | title = 'Wiki Weapon Project' Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D-Print At Home | url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2012/08/23/wiki-weapon-project-aims-to-create-a-gun-anyone-can-3d-print-at-home/ | publisher = [[Forbes]] | date = 2012-08-23 | accessdate = 2012-08-27 }}</ref>
<ref name="pcm20120824">{{ cite news | last = Poeter | first = Damon | title = Could a 'Printable Gun' Change the World? | url = https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2408899,00.asp | publisher = [[PC Magazine]] | date = 2012-08-24 | accessdate = 2012-08-27 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-53">{{ cite web | url = https://www.statesman.com/news/news/blueprints-for-3-d-printer-gun-pulled-off-website/nXnbG/ | title = Blueprints for 3-D printer gun pulled off website | publisher = statesman.com | date = May 2013 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-54">{{ cite web | first = Aaron | last = Samsel | url = https://www.guns.com/2013/05/23/3d-printers-meet-othermill-a-cnc-machine-for-your-home-office/ | title = 3D Printers, Meet Othermill: A CNC machine for your home office (VIDEO) | publisher = Guns.com | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-55">{{ cite web | url = https://www.popehat.com/2011/10/06/the-third-wave-cnc-stereolithography-and-the-end-of-gun-control/ | title = The Third Wave, CNC, Stereolithography, and the end of gun control | publisher = Popehat | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-56">{{ cite news | title = Weapons made with 3-D printers could test gun-control efforts | url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/weapons-made-with-3-d-printers-could-test-gun-control-efforts/2013/02/18/9ad8b45e-779b-11e2-95e4-6148e45d7adb_story.html?hpid=z1|newspaper=Washington Post | first = Michael S. | last = Rosenwald | date = 2013-02-25 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-57">{{ cite news | url = https://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21571910-regulatory-and-legal-challenges-posed-3d-printing-gun-parts-ready-print-fire | title = Making guns at home: Ready, print, fire | publisher = The Economist | date = 2013-02-16 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-58">{{ cite news | last = Rayner | first = Alex | title = 3D-printable guns are just the start, says Cody Wilson | url = https://www.guardian.co.uk/world/shortcuts/2013/may/06/3d-printable-guns-cody-wilson|newspaper=The Guardian | date = 6 May 2013|location=London }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-59">{{ cite web | last = Manjoo | first = Farhad | url = https://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2013/05/_3_d_printed_gun_yes_it_will_be_possible_to_make_weapons_with_3_d_printers.single.html | title = 3-D-printed gun: Yes, it will be possible to make weapons with 3-D printers. No, that doesn't make gun control futile | publisher = Slate.com | date = 2013-05-08 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-60">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_KBxG1_WO8k Students Use 3D Printing to Reconstruct Dinosaurs - YouTube]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-61">[https://on3dprinting.com/2013/02/20/3d-printing-in-the-classroom-to-accelerate-adoption-of-technology/ 3D Printing in the Classroom to Accelerate Adoption of Technology. On 3D Printing]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-62">[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0736585314000343 Kostakis, V.; Niaros, V.; Giotitsas, C. (2014): ''Open source 3D printing as a means of learning: An educational experiment in two high schools in Greece''. In: Telematics and Informatics]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-63">{{ cite journal | last = DiSalvo, C | title = Design and the Construction of Publics|journal=Design Issues | date = 2009|volume=25|series=1 | page = 48 | doi=10.1162/desi.2009.25.1.48}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-64">{{ cite journal | author = Ratto, M.| author2 = Ree, R.| last-author-amp = yes | title = Materializing information: 3D printing and social change.|journal=First Monday | date = 2012|volume=17|issue=7 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-65">{{ cite journal | last = Ratto | first = Matt | title = Open Design and Critical Making|journal=Open Design Now: Why Design Cannot Remain Exclusive | date = 2011 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-66">{{ cite journal | last = Lukens | first = Jonathan | title = Speculative Design and Technological Fluency | journal = International Journal of Learning and Media|volume=3|pages=23–39 | doi=10.1162/ijlm_a_00080}}</ref>
<!--
<ref name="AutoSQ-67">{{ cite news | title = New VLT component created using 3D printing | url = https://www.eso.org/public/images/ann14011a/ | accessdate = 11 February 2014|newspaper=ESO Announcement }}</ref>
 -->
<ref name="AutoQK-4">Pearce, Joshua M. 2012. "[https://www.sciencemag.org/content/337/6100/1303.summary Building Research Equipment with Free, Open-Source Hardware." ''Science'' '''337''' (6100): 1303–1304]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-68">{{cite doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0059840|noedit}}</ref>
<ref name="tc20120120">{{ cite news | title = The World's First 3D-Printed Building Will Arrive In 2014 | url = https://techcrunch.com/2013/01/20/the-worlds-first-3d-printed-building-will-arrive-in-2014-and-it-looks-awesome/ | accessdate = 2013-02-08|newspaper=TechCrunch | date = 2012-01-20 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-34">{{cite doi|10.1145/1064830.1064860|noedit}}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-35">{{ cite web | url = https://www.zcorp.com/documents/194_2007-1212-Wall%20Street%20Journal-3DP%20Turns%20Web%20World%20Real.pdf | title = How 3-D Printing Figures To Turn Web Worlds Real (The Wall Street Journal, December 12, 2007) | first = Robert A. | last=Guth | accessdate = 2012-01-31 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-36">{{ cite news | author = iPad iPhone Android TIME TV Populist The Page | url = https://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1727737_1727680_1727556,00.html | title = '&#39;Bathsheba Grossman's Quin.MGX for Materialise'&#39; listed in Time Magazine's Design 100 | publisher = Time.com | date = 2008-04-03 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-37">{{ cite news | url = https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/object-lesson-how-the-world-of-decorative-art-is-being-revolutionised-by-3d-printing-2342500.html | title = Object lesson: How the world of decorative art is being revolutionised by 3D printing (The Independent, 28 August 2011) | last=Williams | first = Holly | accessdate = 2012-01-31 | location = London | date = 2011-08-28 }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-41">[https://creativemachines.cornell.edu/sites/default/files/SFF09_Cohen1_0.pdf "Hydrocolloid Printing", Cornell Creative, 2012]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-71">[https://www.ted.com/talks/lee_cronin_print_your_own_medicine.html ted.com, Lee Cronin: Print your own medicine]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-72">[https://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-01-28/all-the-food-thats-fit-to-3d-print-from-chocolates-to-pizza A Guide to All the Food That's Fit to 3D Print (So Far)]</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-42">{{cite doi|10.1145/1367080.1367082|noedit}}</ref>
<ref name="gizmodo20130131">{{ cite news | last = Diaz | first = Jesus | title = This Is What the First Lunar Base Could Really Look Like | url = https://gizmodo.com/moon-base/ | accessdate = 2013-02-01 | newspaper = Gizmodo | date = 2013-01-31 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-73">{{ cite news | last = Raval | first = Siddharth | title = SinterHab: A Moon Base Concept from Sintered 3D-Printed Lunar Dust | url = https://www.spacesafetymagazine.com/2013/03/29/sinterhab-3d-printed-moon-base-concept-lunar-dust/ | accessdate = 2013-10-15 | newspaper = Space Safety Magazine | date = 2013-03-29 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-74">{{cite doi|10.1364/CLEO_SI.2013.CTh1K.2|noedit}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-76">{{ cite web | author = The Diplomat | url = https://thediplomat.com/tech-biz/2013/08/15/chinese-scientists-are-3d-printing-ears-and-livers-with-living-tissue/ | title = Chinese Scientists Are 3D Printing Ears and Livers&nbsp;– With Living Tissue | work = Tech Biz | publisher = The Diplomat | date = 2013-08-15 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-77">{{ cite web | url = https://www.3ders.org/articles/20130815-how-do-they-3d-print-kidney-in-china.html | title = How do they 3D print kidney in China | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-78">{{ cite web | url = https://globaleconomicanalysis.blogspot.co.uk/2013/08/3d-printing-spare-human-parts-ears-and.html | title = Mish's Global Economic Trend Analysis: 3D-Printing Spare Human Parts; Ears and Jaws Already, Livers Coming Up ; Need an Organ? Just Print It | publisher = Globaleconomicanalysis.blogspot.co.uk | date = 2013-08-18 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-79">{{ cite web | url = https://blogs.ptc.com/2013/08/01/underwater-city-3d-printed-reef-restores-bahrains-marine-life/ | title = Underwater City: 3D Printed Reef Restores Bahrain's Marine Life | publisher = ptc.com | date = 2013-08-01 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-80">{{ cite web | url = https://www.techadvisor.co.uk/features/printing/how-3d-printing-is-helping-doctors-mend-you-better/ | title = How 3D printing is helping doctors mend you better | date = November 13, 2013 | last = Bennett | first = Neil | publisher = TechAdvisor }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-82">[https://www.patentinsightpro.com/techreports/0214/Tech%20Insight%20Report%20-%203D%20Printing.pdf 3D Printing Technology Insight Report, 2014, patent activity involving 3D-Printing from 1990-2013, accessed 2014-06-10]</ref>
<ref name="wired">[https://www.wired.com/design/2012/05/3-d-printing-patent-law/ Clive Thompson on 3-D Printing's Legal Morass. Wired, Clive Thompson 05.30.12 1:43&nbsp;PM]</ref>
<ref name="deal">{{ cite web | url = https://www.publicknowledge.org/files/What%27s%20the%20Deal%20with%20Copyright_%20Final%20version2.pdf | title = What's the Deal with copyright and 3D printing?| first= Michael | last = Weinberg | date=January 2013 | publisher = Institute for Emerging Innovation |format=PDF | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-83">{{ cite news | url = https://www.foxnews.com/us/2013/05/23/govt-memo-warns-3d-printed-guns-may-be-impossible-to-stop/ | title = Homeland Security bulletin warns 3D-printed guns may be 'impossible' to stop | publisher = Fox News | date = 2013-05-23 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-84">{{ cite web | last = Cochrane | first = Peter | url = https://www.techrepublic.com/blog/european-technology/peter-cochranes-blog-beyond-3d-printed-guns/1728 | title = Peter Cochrane's Blog: Beyond 3D Printed Guns | publisher = TechRepublic | date = 2013-05-21 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-85">{{ cite web | last = Gilani | first = Nadia | url = https://metro.co.uk/2013/05/06/gun-factory-fears-as-3d-blueprints-available-online-3714514/ | title = Gun factory fears as 3D blueprints put online by Defense Distributed &#124; Metro News | publisher = Metro.co.uk | date = 2013-05-06 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-86">{{ cite web | url = https://digitaljournal.com/article/349588 | title = Liberator: First 3D-printed gun sparks gun control controversy | publisher = Digitaljournal.com | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-87">{{ cite web | url = https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/articles/465236/20130507/3d-printed-gun-test-fire-defense-distributed.htm | title = First 3D Printed Gun 'The Liberator' Successfully Fired | publisher = IBTimes UK | date = 2013-05-07 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-88">{{ cite web | url = https://www.neurope.eu/article/us-demands-removal-3d-printed-gun-blueprints | title = US demands removal of 3D printed gun blueprints | publisher = neurope.eu | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-89">{{ cite web | url = https://economia.elpais.com/economia/2013/05/09/agencias/1368130430_552019.html | title = España y EE.UU. lideran las descargas de los planos de la pistola de impresión casera | publisher = ElPais.com | date = 2013-05-09 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-90">{{ cite web | url = https://quietbabylon.com/2013/controlled-by-guns/ | title = Controlled by Guns | publisher = Quiet Babylon | date = 2013-05-07 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-91">{{ cite web | url = https://www.joncamfield.com/tags/3dprinting | title = 3dprinting | publisher = Joncamfield.com | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-92">{{ cite web | url = https://news.antiwar.com/2013/05/10/state-dept-censors-3d-gun-plans-citing-national-security/ | title = State Dept Censors 3D Gun Plans, Citing 'National Security' | publisher = News.antiwar.com | date = 2013-05-10 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-93">{{ cite web | url = https://reason.com/blog/2013/05/08/wishful-thinking-is-control-freaks-last | title = Wishful Thinking Is Control Freaks' Last Defense Against 3D-Printed Guns | publisher = Reason.com | date = 2013-05-08 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-94">{{ cite web | last = Lennard | first = Natasha | url = https://www.salon.com/2013/05/10/the_pirate_bay_steps_in_to_distribute_3d_gun_designs/ | title = The Pirate Bay steps in to distribute 3-D gun designs | publisher = Salon.com | date = 2013-05-10 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 | archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6GjdyItbX | archivedate = 2013-05-19 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-95">{{ cite web | url = https://sacramento.cbslocal.com/2013/05/08/sen-leland-yee-proposes-regulations-on-3-d-printers-after-gun-test/ | title = Sen. Leland Yee Proposes Regulating Guns From 3-D Printers | publisher = CBS Sacramento | date = 2013-05-08 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-96">[https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2013/05/05/schumer-announces-support-for-measure-to-make-3d-printed-guns-illegal Schumer Announces Support For Measure To Make 3D Printed Guns Illegal]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-97">{{ cite web | url = https://makezine.com/27/doctorow/ | title = Four Horsemen of the 3D Printing Apocalypse | publisher = Makezine.com | date = 2011-06-30 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-98">{{ cite news | last = Ball | first = James | title = US government attempts to stifle 3D-printer gun designs will ultimately fail | url = https://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2013/may/10/3d-printing-gun-blueprint-state-department-ban | newspaper = The Guardian | date = 10 May 2013 | location = London }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-99">{{ cite web | author = Gadgets | url = https://techcrunch.com/2013/01/18/like-it-or-not-i-think-3d-printing-is-about-to-get-legislated/ | title = Like It Or Not, 3D Printing Will Probably Be Legislated | publisher = TechCrunch | date = 2013-01-18 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-100">{{ cite web | first = Liz | last = Klimas | url = https://www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/02/19/engineer-dont-regulate-3d-printed-guns-regulate-explosive-gun-powder-instead/ | title = Engineer: Don't Regulate 3D Printed Guns, Regulate Explosive Gun Powder Instead | publisher = TheBlaze.com | date = 2013-02-19 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-101">{{ cite news | last = Beckhusen | first = Robert | url = https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2013/02/gunpowder-regulation/ | title = 3-D Printing Pioneer Wants Government to Restrict Gunpowder, Not Printable Guns &#124; Danger Room | publisher = Wired.com | date = 2013-02-15 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-102">{{ cite web | url = https://www.theatlanticwire.com/technology/2013/05/how-defense-distributed-already-upended-world/65126/ | title = How Defense Distributed Already Upended the World | first = Philip | last = Bump | publisher = The Atlantic Wire | date = 2013-05-10 | accessdate = 2013-10-30 | archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6GjdvfiAQ | archivedate = 2013-05-19 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-103">{{ cite web | url = https://www.europeanplasticsnews.com/subscriber/headlines2.html?cat=1&id=2961 | title = News | publisher = European Plastics News | accessdate = 2013-10-30 }}</ref>
<ref name="Albert_2011-02_MMS_column">{{harvnb|Albert|2011}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-104">{{ cite web | title = Confronting a New 'Era of Duplication'? 3D Printing, Replicating Technology and the Search for Authenticity in George O. Smith's Venus Equilateral Series | url = https://www.academia.edu/4071685/Confronting_a_new_Era_of_Duplication_3D_Printing_Replicating_Technology_and_the_Search_for_Authenticity_in_George_O._Smiths_Venus_Equilateral_Series | publisher = Durham University | accessdate = July 21, 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-105">{{ cite web | title = Materializing information: 3D printing and social change | url = https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/3968 | accessdate = January 13, 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-106">{{ cite web | title = Additive Manufacturing: A supply chain wide response to economic uncertainty and environmental sustainability | url = https://www.econolyst.co.uk/resources/documents/files/Paper%20-%20Oct%202008-%20AM%20a%20supply%20chain%20wide%20response.pdf | accessdate = January 11, 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-107">{{ cite web | title = Materializing information: 3D printing and social change | url = https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/3968/3273 | accessdate = March 30, 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-108">{{ cite web | title = RepRap Options | url = https://reprap.org/wiki/RepRap_Options | accessdate = March 30, 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-109">{{ cite web | title = 3D Printing | url = https://www.reddit.com/r/3Dprinting/ | accessdate = March 30, 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-110">{{ cite web | title = Thingiverse | url = https://www.thingiverse.com/ | accessdate = March 30, 2014 }}</ref>
<ref name="triple-c.at">Kostakis, V. (2013): ''[https://triple-c.at/index.php/tripleC/article/view/463 At the Turning Point of the Current Techno-Economic Paradigm: Commons-Based Peer Production, Desktop Manufacturing and the Role of Civil Society in the Perezian Framework. ]''. In: TripleC, 11(1), 173 - 190.</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-111">Kostakis, V.; Papachristou, M. (2014): ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0736585313000609 Commons-based peer production and digital fabrication: The case of a RepRap-based, Lego-built 3D printing-milling machine]''. In: Telematics and Informatics, 31(3), 434 - 443</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-112">Kostakis, V; Fountouklis, M; Drechsler, W. (2013): ''[https://sth.sagepub.com/content/38/6/773 Peer Production and Desktop Manufacturing: The Case of the Helix-T Wind Turbine Project. ]''. In: Science, Technology & Human Values, 38(6), 773 - 800.</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-113">Campbell, Thomas, Christopher Williams, Olga Ivanova, and Banning Garrett. (2011): ''[https://www.acus.org/publication/could-3d-printing-change-world Could 3D Printing Change the World? Technologies, Potential, and Implications of Additive Manufacturing]''. Washington: Atlantic Council of the United States</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-114">Bradshaw, Simon, Adrian Bowyer, and Patrick Haufe (2010): ''[https://opus.bath.ac.uk/18661/ The Intellectual Property Implications of Low-Cost 3D Printing]''. In: SCRIPTed 7</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-115">Gershenfeld, Neil (2007): ''FAB: The Coming Revolution on your Desktop: From Personal Computers to Personal Fabrication''. Cambridge: Basic Books, p. 13-14</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-116">[https://www.democracyjournal.org/32/the-inequality-puzzle.php?page=all Larry Summers, The Inequality Puzzle, ''Democracy: A Journal of Ideas'', Issue #32, Spring 2014]</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-117">[https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/michael-spence-describes-an-era-in-which-developing-countries-can-no-longer-rely-on-vast-numbers-of-cheap-workers Michael Spence, Labor's Digital Displacement (2014-05-22), ''Project Syndicate'']</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-118">[https://www.forbes.com/sites/rakeshsharma/2014/06/17/can-3d-printing-reshape-manufacturing-in-america/ Can 3D Printing Reshape Manufacturing In America?, Forbes.com 17 June 2014, retrieved 11 Aug 2014]</ref>
<ref name="Bopp2010">{{ cite book | author = Felix Bopp | title = Future Business Models by Additive Manufacturing | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=M_SmmUOwsWwC | accessdate = 4 July 2014 | date = 2010 | publisher = Verlag | isbn = 3836685086 }}</ref>
<ref name="AutoSQ-119">{{ cite web | url = https://gizmodo.com/3d-hubs-like-airbnb-for-3d-printers-1207496555 | title = 3D Hubs: Like Airbnb For 3D Printers | publisher = [[gizmodo]] | accessdate = 2014-07-05 }}</ref>

<ref name="Auto3D-28">{{ cite news | url = https://www.wired.com/beyond_the_beyond/2011/06/spime-watch-dassault-systemes%E2%80%99-3dvia-and-sculpteo/ | title = Spime Watch: Dassault Systèmes' 3DVIA and Sculpteo (Reuters, June 27, 2011) | first = Bruce | last = Sterling | accessdate = 2012-01-31 | date = 2011-06-27 |archiveurl=https://uk.reuters.article.archive.joblink-inc.org/oldfiles/2011/06/spime-watch-dassault-systemes | archivedate = 15 April 2014 | work = Wired }}</ref>
<ref name="Auto3D-29">{{ cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/13/technology/personaltech/13basics.html?_r=1 | title = The Wow Factor of 3-D Printing (The New York Times, January 12, 2011) | first = Ashlee | last = Vance | accessdate = 2012-01-31 | date = 2011-01-12 }}</ref>
<ref name=carbon-fiber>[https://machinedesign.com/3d-printing/markforged-5000-3d-printer-prints-carbon-fiber-parts Eitel, Elisabeth. MarkForged: $5,000 3D printer prints carbon-fiber parts. Machine Design Magazine, 7 March 2014]</ref>

}}

== Further Reading ==
* {{cite web|title=Results of Make Magazine's 2015 3D Printer Shootout|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1EKsDga2PVD_H9HI2MJbPXCey6bYFEIWErOsAHKHZ3GU/edit#gid=1210667708|publisher=docs.google.com|accessdate=1 June 2015}}
* {{cite web|title=Evaluation Protocol for Make Magazine's 2015 3D Printer Shootout|url=https://makezine.com/2014/11/07/how-to-evaluate-the-2015-make-3dp-test-probes/|publisher=makezine.com|accessdate=1 June 2015}}
* {{cite journal |last=Vincent |last2=Earls |first2=Alan R. |date=February 2011 |title=Origins: A 3D Vision Spawns Stratasys, Inc. |journal=Today's Machining World |volume=7 |issue=1 |publisher=Screw Machine World Inc. |location=Oak Forest, Illinois, USA |pages=24–25 |url=https://www.todaysmachiningworld.com/origins-a-3d-vision-spawns-stratasys-inc/ |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Albert |first=Mark [Editor in Chief] |date=17 January 2011 |title=Subtractive plus additive equals more than ( <nowiki>− + + = ></nowiki> ): subtractive and additive processes can be combined to develop innovative manufacturing methods that are superior to conventional methods ['Mark: My Word' column – Editor's Commentary] |journal=Modern Machine Shop |volume=83 |issue=9 |publisher=Gardner Publications Inc. |location=Cincinnati, Ohio, USA |page=14 |url=https://www.mmsonline.com/columns/subtractive-plus-additive-equals-more-than |ref=harv }}
* {{cite doi|10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050|noedit}}
* {{cite journal |last=Easton |first=Thomas A. |date= November 2008|title=The 3D Trainwreck: How 3D Printing Will Shake Up Manufacturing |journal=[[Analog Science Fiction and Fact|Analog]] |volume=128 |issue=11 |pages=50–63 |ref=harv }}
* Wright, Paul K. (2001). ''21st Century Manufacturing''. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

== External links ==
{{Commons category|3D printing}}{{Z148}}
* {{dmoz|Science/Technology/Manufacturing/Prototyping/Rapid_Prototyping|Rapid prototyping websites}}
{{Prone to spam|date=May 2015}}
{{Z148}}<!--     {{No more links}}

       Please be cautious adding more external links.

Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising.

     Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed.

 See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details.

If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on
the article's talk page, or submit your link to the relevant category at
DMOZ (dmoz.org) and link there using {{Dmoz}}..